Justinian, Inst. 2.6

Iure civili constitutum fuerat, ut, qui bona fide ab eo qui dominus non erat, cum crediderit eum dominum esse, rem emerit vel ex donatione aliave qua iusta causa acceperit, is eam rem, si mobilis erat, anno ubique, si immobilis, biennio tantum in Italico solo usucapiat, ne rerum dominia in incerto essent. et cum hoc placitum erat, putantibus antiquioribus dominis sufficere ad inquirendas res suas praefata tempora, nobis melior sententia resedit, ne domini maturius suis rebus defraudentur neque certo loco beneficium hoc concludatur. et ideo constitutionem super hoc promulgavimus, qua cautum est, ut res quidem mobiles per triennium usucapiantur, immobiles vero per longi temporis possessionem, id est inter praesentes decennio, inter absentes viginti annis, usucapiantur, et his modis, non solum in Italia sed in omni terra quae nostro imperio gubernatur, dominium rerum iusta causa possessionis praecedente adquiratur.

1. Sed aliquando etiamsi maxime quis bona fide rem possederit, non tamen illi usucapio ullo tempore procedit, veluti si quis liberum hominem vel rem sacram vel religiosam vel servum fugitivum possideat.

2. Furtivae quoque res et quae vi possessae sunt, nec si praedicto longo tempore bona fide possessae fuerint, usucapi possunt: nam furtivarum rerum lex duodecim tabularum et lex Atinia inhibet usucapionem, vi possessarum lex Iulia et Plautia.

3. Quod autem dictum est furtivaram et vi possessarum rerum usucapionem per legem prohibitam esse, non eo pertinet ut ne ipse fur quive per vim possidet usucapere possit: nam his alia ratione usucapio non competit, quia scilicet mala fide possident: sed ne ullus alius, quamvis ab eis bona fide emerit vel ex alia causa acceperit, usucapiendi ius habeat. unde in rebus mobilibus non facile procedit ut bonae fidei possessori usucapio competat. nam qui alienam rem vendidit vel ex alia causa tradidit, furtum eius committit.

4. Sed tamen id aliquando aliter se habet. nam si heres, rem defuncto commodatam aut locatam vel apud eum depositam existimans hereditariam esse, bona fide accipienti vendiderit aut donaverit aut dotis nomine dederit, quin is qui acceperit usucapere possit, dubium non est, quippe ea res in furti vitium non ceciderit, cum utique heres qui bona fide tamquam suam alienaverit furtum non committit.

5. Item si is ad quem ancillae ususfructus pertinet, partum suum esse credens, vendiderit aut donaverit, furtum non committit: furtum enim sine affectu furandi non committitur.

6. Aliis quoque modis accidere potest ut quis sine vitio furti rem alienam ad aliquem transferat et efficiat ut a possessore usucapiatur.

7. Quod autem ad eas res quae solo continentur expeditius procedit: ut si quis loci vacantis possessionem propter absentiam aut neglegentiam domini, aut quia sine successore decesserit, sine vi nanciscatur. qui quamvis ipse mala fide possidet, quia intellegit, se alienum fundum occupasse, tamen, si alii bona fide accipienti tradiderit, poterit ei longa possessione res adquiri, quia neque furtivum neque vi possessum accepit; abolita est enim quorundam veterum sententia existimantium, etiam fundi locive furtum fieri, et eorum qui res soli possident principalibus constitutionibus prospicitur, ne cui longa et indubitata possessio auferri debeat.

8. Aliquando etiam furtiva vel vi possessa res usucapi potest: veluti si in domini potestatem reversa fuerit; tunc enim, vitio rei purgato, procedit eius usucapio.

9. Res fisci nostri usucapi non potest. sed Papinianus scripsit, bonis vacantibus fisco nondum nuntiatis, bona fide emptorem sibi traditam rem ex his bonis usucapere posse: et ita divus Pius et divi Severus et Antoninus rescripserunt.

10. Novissime sciendum est, rem talem esse debere, ut in se non habeat vitium, ut a bona fide emptore usucapi possit vel qui ex alia iusta causa possidet.

11. Error autem falsae causae usucapionem non parit. veluti si quis, cum non emerit, emisse se existimans possideat: vel cum ei donatum non fuerat, quasi ex donatione possideat.

12. Diutina possessio, quae prodesse coeperat defuncto, et heredi et bonorum possessori continuatur, licet ipse sciat praedium alienum: quodsi ille initium iustum non habuit, heredi et bonorum possessori, licet ignoranti, possessio non prodest. quod nostra constitutio similiter et in usucapionibus observari constituit, ut tempora continuentur.

13. Inter venditorem quoque et emptorem coniungi tempora, divi Severus et Antoninus rescripserunt.

14. Edicto divi Marci cavetur, eum qui a fisco rem alienam emit, si post venditionem quinquennium praeterierit, posse dominum rei per exceptionem repellere. constitutio autem divae memoriae Zenonis bene prospexit his qui a fisco per venditionem vel donationem vel alium titulum aliquid accipiunt, ut ipsi quidem securi statim fiant et victores existant, sive conveniantur sive experiantur: adversus sacratissimum autem aerarium usque ad quadriennium liceat intendere his qui pro dominio vel hypotheca earum rerum quae alienatae sunt putaverint sibi quasdam competere actiones. nostra autem divina constitutio, quam nuper promulgavimus, etiam de his qui a nostra vel venerabilis Augustae domo aliquid acceperint haec statuit quae in fiscalibus alienationibus praefata Zenoniana constitutione continentur.

Justinian, Institutes. Book 2,Title VI:

Of acquisition by use, and of possession of long standing.

By the civil law it was provided that he who bona fide bought a thing, or received it by way of gift, or any other lawful means, from a person who was not the owner, but whom he thought to be so, should acquire the thing through having had the use of it for one year, if it were a movable, where. ever it might be, or for two years in the case of in immovable, but this only if it were on Italian suit, the object of the rule being to prevent the ownership of things remaining in uncertainty; but though this was so settled by the ancients, on the ground that the abovementioned time was sufficient for owners to inquire after their property, we have come to a better decision, in order to prevent owners being defrauded of their property too quickly. and to prevent the benefit of :he rule being restricted to any fixed locality and, therefore, we have made a constitution, providing that movables may he acquired by a use during three years. but immovables by the possession through a long period (that is, ten years between persons present, and twenty between persons absent) and that by these means not onlv in Italy, but in every land ruled by us, the ownership of things may be acquired, provided a lawful ground for for possession precedes.

§1. But, sometimes, although a person possesses the property of another in perfect good faith, no acquisition by use flows from the possession, however long it may be: as, for example, when anyone possesses a free person, a sacred or religious thing. or a fugitive slave.

§2. Things, stolen, or taken by force. cannot be acquired by use, although they have been' bona fide possessed during the above

§3. When it is said that the acquisition by use of things stolen or taken by force is forbidden by these laws, this does not mean that the thief himself, or he who possesses himself of the thing by force, is unable to acquire the pro. perty (for another reason prevents the acquisition by use, viz, that, of course, their possession is mala fide), but no one else, although he has in good faith purchased or received it on any other ground, has the right of acquiring by use. Whence, in respect of movables, it does not easily happen that a bona fide possessor can avail himself of acquisition by use. For whenever a person sells, or delivers for any other reason, a thing belonging to another, it is theft.

§ 4. But this way sometimes be otherwise; for, if an heir supposing a thing lent or hired out to the deceased, or deposited with him, to be part of the inheritance, sells or gives It as a gift or dowry to a person who receives it bona tide, there is no doubt that the person receiving it may squire the property in it by use, and the thing will not be infected by the vice of theft, for in that the heir has bona fide alienated it as his own, he has not committed theft.

§5. So, If he to whom the usufruct of a female slave belongs, sells or gives away her offspring, believing it to belong to him, he does not commit theft; for theft is not committed without the intention of stealing.

§6. It may also happen in other ways that a person may transfer to another property not his own, without its being infected with the vice of theft. so that the possessor may acquire it by use.

§7. But, in respect of things of the class of immovables, the case may more easily arise, as, if a person, without violence, has taken possession of a place vacant through the absence or negligence of the owner, or bemuse he has died without a successor; and although he possesses; mala fide (since he knows that he has occupied land belonging to another), yet, if he delivers it to a third person who receives it bona fide, this person way acquire the property in It by long possession, as the thing he receives has neither been stolen nor taken by force

§ 8. Sometimes even a thing stolen or taken by force may be acquired by use as where it has returned into the power of the owner for, then. the vice being purged, the acquisition by use may take place.

§ 10. Lastly, it is to be observed that a thing must be in such a condition as not to be infected with any vice, in order that a bona fide purchaser or person who possesses it an any other lawful ground, may acquire it by use.

§ 11. But a mistake as to the ground of possession is not available for acquisition by use as, for example, if a person possesses in the belief that be has bought the thing when he has not bought it or that he possesses on the ground of a gift, when no gift has been made to him.

§ 12. Long possession, which has been running in favour of the deceased, is continued in favour of the heir, or the possessor of the goods, although he may know that the estate belongs to another; but, if the deceased commenced an unlawful possession, the possession does not avail the heir or the possessor of the goods, although ignorant of this. And, our constitution has settled the same rule as to acquisitions by use, that is, that the time may continue to run on.

§ 13. The late Emperors Severus and Antoninus have decided by rescript that the times of possession of vendor and purchaser shall be reckoned together.

§ 14. An edict of the late Emperor Marcus Aurelius provides, that a person who has purchased from the imperial treasury a thing belonging to another person. may defeat the owner of the thing, if five years have elapsed since the sale, by setting up a plea of that fact. But a constitution of Zeno, of sacred memory, has wisely provided that those who receive anything from the imperial treasury by sale, gift, or other title, shall be immediately secure, and be victorious, whether they sue, or are themselves sued. Whilst those who think that they have a right of action in respect of the ownership or mortgage of the things alienated, may proceed against the sacred treasury within four years. An imperial constitution, which we ourselves have recently issued, extends to those who have received anything from our palace, or from that of the august empress, the above-mentioned provisions of the constitution of Zeno, relative to alienations by the treasury.