A Bibliographic Guide to Vergil's Aeneid
by Shirley Werner

It would be folly to try to list everything written on or relevant to the Aeneid, and this bibliography does not pretend to do so. Nevertheless, as I contemplate the dangers of thoroughness on the one hand, and arbitrary selectiveness on the other, it seems to me best to steer cautiously closer to the former. Many items still need to be added. My focus is contemporary, but no time limit was imposed. Works from earlier decades and centuries are included when their importance justifies it. My topics sometimes range outside the boundaries of the Aeneid. Under "Ideology", for example, I include work on some of the other Augustan poets, and several theoretical studies, all of which deepen our understanding of ideology in Vergil. I have often quoted the opinions of other scholars. I hope that my debts to them will be obvious to anyone using this bibliography. I am grateful to Claudio Baschera, Raymond Cormier, Gregory Hays, Barbara McManus, Emanuele Narducci, Christine Perkell, and Richard Thomas for suggestions, and to Joseph Farrell for a reference; I welcome further suggestions and corrections. Please write to sjwerner@mac.com.

• Ancient Scholarship
  Anthologies
  Bibliography
  Biography
  Commentaries
  Cultural Context
  Editions
  Electronic
  Encyclopedia
  Ideology
  Individual Books and Passages
  Major Studies
  Patronage
  Predecessors and Literary Traditions
  Reception and Influence
  Religion, Philosophy, Cosmology
  Rome and Italy
  Style, Themes, Techniques
  Theory and Approaches
  Translation
  Transmission and Text

Ancient Scholarship: Aelius Donatus, Servius, Macrobius, Other Ancient Commentaries

Baschera, Claudio. Gli scolii veronesi a Virgilio, Introduzione, edizione critica e indici. Verona. 1999.

• For a description of this edition see http://space.tin.it/economia/cbasche/.

• "For a dissenting view of the relation of the longer and shorter forms [of the Servius commentary], see [above]." Fowler in Martindale (1997): 78.

Dietz, David B. "Historia in the Commentary of Servius." TAPA 125 (1995) 61-97.

Fowler, Don. "The Virgil Commentary of Servius." In Martindale (1997) 73-78.

Fraenkel, E. In Kleine Beiträge, 339ff. 1964.

• On Servius.

• Translations:
  O. B. Hardison, ed. Medieval Literary Criticism, 69-80. London. 1974.
  L. G. Whitbread. 1971.
  Lynn Stokes. "The Exposition of the Contents of Virgil." Classical Folia 26 (1972) 27-63.

• Edition of a line-by-line commentary on the Aeneid written by Tiberius Claudius Donatus (late 4th-early 5th c. AD).

• Part One: Servius
  1. Servius and Servius Auctus
  2. The compiler of Servius Auctus
  3. The preface to Donatus' commentary
  4. A cross-reference in the Servian Life
  5. The editio princeps of the Aeneid
  6. Ille ego qui quondam...
  Part Two: The Helen Episode
  7. The external evidence
  8. Servius' treatment of his sources
  9. The text of the Helen episode
  10. Internal analysis
  11. The golden section in the Aeneid
  12. Latin style in the Helen episode
  13. Aeneas on the palace roof
  14. The autographs of Virgil
  15. The academic tradition of Virgil
  16. The author of the Helen episode

Harrison, S. J. "The Text and its History." Part 2 of the "Introduction" in Harrison (1991), xxxiv-xl.

• A concise introduction to the text and ancient commentators, with bibliography. Sections: (i) The Textual Tradition of Vergil, (ii) The Ancient Commentators on Vergil, (a) Servius and D. Servius, (b)Tiberius Claudius Donatus, (c) The Scholia Veronensia, (d) Macrobius.

• Review of Vol. 2 by Eduard Fraenkel, JRS 39 (1949) 145-154. This edition will replace that of Thilo and Hagen. On the manuscripts of Servius and the relationship between the commentaries of Servius and Aelius Donatus, see Goold (1970),Murgia (1975).

Jones, J. W. J. "Allegorical Interpretation in Servius." CJ 56 (1960-1) 217-226.

Kaster, Robert A. "Macrobius and Servius. Verecundia and the Grammarian's Function." HSCP 84 (1980).

Kaster, Robert A. Guardians of Language. The Grammarian and Society in Late Antiquity. Berkeley. 1988.

Lazzarini, C. "Elementi di una poetica serviana." Studi Italiani di Filologia Classica 82 (1989) 56-109, 240-260.

Lazzarini, C. "Historia / fabula: forme della costruzione poetica virgiliana nel commento di Servio all'Eneide." Materiali e Discussioni 12 (1984) 117-144.

Mountford, J. F. and Schultz, J. T. Index rerum et nominum in scholiis Servii et Aelii Donati tractatorum. Ithaca. 1930.

Murgia, Charles E. Prolegomena to Servius, 5. The Manuscripts. Berkeley. 1975.

Rosati, G. "Punto di vista narrativo e antichi esegeti di Virgilio." Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Class. di Lett. e Fil. (1979) 539-562.

Squillante Saccone, M. Le Interpretationes Vergilianae di Tiberio Claudio Donato. Naples. 1985.

Starr, Raymond. "Vergil's Seventh Eclogue and Its Readers: Biographical Allegory as an Interpretative Strategy in Antiquity and Late Antiquity." CPh 90 (1995) 129-138.

Stocker, A. F. "Servius servus magistrorum." Vergilius 9 (1963) 9-15.

Thilo, G. and Hagen, H., eds. Servii Grammatici Qui Feruntur in Vergilii Carmina Commentarii. Leipzig. 1878-1902.

• Still the only complete edition of Servius' commentary, though this edition is gradually being replaced by the Harvard Servius.

Timpanaro, S. Per la storia della filologia virgiliana antica. Rome. 1986.

Williams, R. D. "Servius, Commentator and Guide." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 6 (1966-7) 50-56.

Willis, J. Macrobius. 2 Vols. 1963. 2d ed. Stuttgart and Leipzig. 1970.

• Edition of Macrobius' Saturnalia.

Zetzel, James E. G. "Servius as a Textual Critic." Ch. 6 in Latin Textual Criticism in Antiquity, 81-147. Salem. 1981.

• Cross-reference to Reviews.

Bernard, J. D., ed. Vergil at 2000. Commemorative Essays on the Poet and his Influence. New York. 1986.

Bloom, Harold. Virgil. Modern Critical Views. New York. 1986.

• "Bloom's ... anthology of reprinted and previously unpublished material is rather uneven in quality". Farrell (1990).

• Contains Brooks, Clausen (1964), Knox, among others. "[E]xcellent survey of approaches to Vergil is still useful, but was published a quarter-century ago". Farrell (1990).

• "[C]ollection of original essays by various authors". Farrell (1990).

• Contents: Anderson, Bowra,Feeney (1983). (1984),Fraenkel, Goold,Galinsky (1972), Harrison, E. L. (1970). (1990),Harrison (1990b), Horsfall (1971). (1973-4).(1981),Knauer (1964b), Lyne (1983), Nisbet,Rudd,Sandbach,Solmsen,West (1969).(1987),Wilkinson,Williams (1960). (1964).(1967).(1975-6).
  Reviewed by J. Farrell, BMCR: "All the essays in this collection except the first [=Harrison (1990b)] have been previously published elsewhere." F. criticizes the collection as such for being one-sided, though the individual articles within it are often "classic".

• Chapters:
  1. Virgil: his life and times. N. M. Horsfall. 1-26.
  2. Bucolics. A. Perutelli, trans. by N. M. Horsfall. 27-62.
  3. Georgics. N. M. Horsfall. 63-100.
  4. Aeneid. N. M. Horsfall. 101-216.
  5. Style, language, and meter. N. M. Horsfall. 217-248.
  6. Virgil's impact at Rome: The non-literary evidence. N. M. Horsfall. 249-256.
  7. Virgil: The literary impact. W. R. Barnes. 257-292.
  8. The transmission of Virgil's works in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. M. Geymonat, trans. by N. M. Horsfall. 293-312.
  Appendix: The "Harvard School." W. V. Clausen. 313-14.

• Contents: Barchiesi, Braund (1997a), Burrow (1997a). (1997b),Cox,Farrell (1997), Fowler (1997a). (1997b),Hardie (1997), Kennedy (1997), Laird,Liveley,Liversidge,Martindale (1997b), O'Hara (1997), Oliensis,Tarrant (1997a). (1997b),Theodorakopoulos,Zetzel (1997).

• "The fifteen essays chosen were published between 1972 and 1985, and stick to well-trodden paths." J. Farrell, BMCR review.

Robertson, F., ed. Meminisse iuvabit. Selections from the Proceedings of the Vergil Society. Bristol. 1988.

• Lectures, many of which have been published elsewhere as articles.

Bibliography

Dorey, T. A., ed. London. 1969.

Morano Rando, M. T. Bibliografia virgiliana. Genoa. 1987.

Serpa, F. Il Punto su Virgilio. Rome. 1987.

Suerbaum, W. "Hundert Jahre Vergil-Forschung. Eine systematische Arbeitsbibliographie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Aeneis." ANRW 2.31.1. Berlin. 1980.

• Bibliography from 1875-1975. Contents:
  A. Allgemeines.
  B. Allgemeinere Werke zu Vergil.
  C. Übergreifende Aspekte, besonders zur Aeneis.
  D. Zu einzelnen Aeneis-Büchern.
  E. Vorbilder und Quellen.
  F. Nachleben und Nachwirkung.

• Annotated bibliographies published annually.

Booth, A. D. "Virgile. Ses Années Scolaires." In Mélanges Etienne Gareau. Ottawa. 1982.

• "What sort of education had V. had by the time he arrived in Rome? The sort then available, with some managing, to the son of a fairly prosperous family: mainly literary, devoted to the study of 'classical' Greek and, to some extent, early Latin poetry (prose was neglected), and concentrating on grammar and rhetoric. The truth is that we know very little in detail about education in V.'s day." Clausen (1987): 4, with reference to above.

Donatus, Aelius. Vita Vergilii.

• The ancient biography of V., preserved in the commentary of Aelius Donatus, 4th c. A.D.; thought to be based on a biography by Suetonius. Latin text in C. G. Hardie, ed., Vitae Vergilianae Antiquae (2d ed.; Oxford, 1957; published together with R. Ellis, ed., Appendix Vergiliana), Thilo and Hagen. English translation in Camps (1969). Latin and English in J. C. Rolfe, ed. Suetonius. Vol. 2, 464-483 (Loeb Classical Library; Cambridge, MA, 1914).

• Vol. V** has portraits, biographical material, and more.

Liveley, Genevieve. "Dateline." In Martindale (1997) 337-339.

• Three pages of dates relevant to the study of Vergil, from the traditional date of the Trojan War (1200 B.C.) to T. S. Eliot's "Virgil and the Christian World" (A.D. 1951).

Conington, J. and Nettleship, H. Vergil. 3d ed. London. 1881-93.

de la Cerda, J. L. P. Vergilii Maronis priores sex libri Aeneidos argumentis explicationibus notis illustrati. Leiden. 1612. P. Vergilii Maronis posteriores sex libri Aeneidos argumentis explicationibus notis illustrati. 1617. Reprint. Cologne. 1642-7.

Henry, James. Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical, and Aesthetical Remarks on the Aeneid. 4 Vols. London, Dublin, and Edinburgh. 1873-92.

• "[S]plendidly rhetorical, often misguided, often perceptive." Harrison (1991): xi.

Ladewig, T. Aeneid. Berlin. 1876-86.

Mackail, J. W. Virgil's Aeneid. Oxford. 1930.

Page, T. E. The Aeneid of Virgil. 2 Vols. London. 1894-1900.

Perret, J. Vergile. L'Eneide. 3 Vols. Budé. Paris. 1977-80.

Williams, R. D. The Aeneid of Virgil. 2 vols. London. 1972-3.

Book I:

Austin, R. G. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Primus. Oxford. 1971.

Book II:

Austin, R. G. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Secundus. Oxford. 1964.

Book III:

Williams, R. D. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Tertius. Oxford. 1961.

Book IV:

Austin, R. G. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Quartus. Oxford. 1955.

Pease, A. S. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Quartus. Cambridge, MA. 1935.

Book V:

Williams, R. D. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Quintus. Oxford. 1960.

Book VI:

Austin, R. G. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Liber Sextus. Oxford. 1977.

Norden, Eduard. P. Vergilius Maro Aeneis Buch VI. 2d ed. Leipzig. 1916. 3d ed. Stuttgart. 1926. 5th ed. 1970. 7th ed. 1981.

Book VII:

Fordyce, C. J. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Libri VII-VIII. With a Commentary. Oxford. 1977.

Book VIII:

Eden, P. T. A Commentary on Virgil. Aeneid VIII. Leiden. 1975.

Fordyce, C. J. P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos Libri VII-VIII. With a Commentary. Oxford. 1977.

Gransden, K. W. Virgil. Aeneid Book VIII. Cambridge. 1976.

• Good introductory remarks on structural relation to Homer (4-6). Less convincing on triads (6-7). Typology, "the linking of Aeneas with the new ruler Augustus", introduced sensibly (8-9), but the idea threatens to be taken too far. A significant section of the introduction (14-20) concentrates on typology, and another section (36-41) on "Myth as Allegory." Useful on topography (29-36).

Hardie, Philip R. Virgil, Aeneid Book IX. Cambridge. 1995.

• Reviewed by J. J. O'Hara, BMCR 95.7.11.

Book X:

Harrison, S. J. Vergil, Aeneid 10. With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Oxford. 1991.

• Reviewed by J. Farrell, BMCR 4.4-1-14.

Gransden, K. W. Virgil, Aeneid Book XI. Cambridge. 1991.

• Reviewed by J. Farrell, BMCR 4.4-1-14.

Tarrant, Richard. Commentary to Aeneid 12. Forthcoming (from Cambridge University Press).

Cultural Context

See also Patronage and, for more complete references to the political context, Ideology.

Anderson, William S. "Pompey, his Friends and the Literature of the First Century B.C." Univ. of Calif. Publ. Class. Philol. 19. Berkeley. 1963.

Fantham, Elaine. Roman Literary Culture. From Cicero to Apuleius. Baltimore. 1996.

Feeney, Denis. Literature and Religion at Rome. Cultures, Contexts, and Beliefs. Roman Literature and its Contexts. Cambridge. 1998.

• "[P]rovides a broader socio-political and cultural context for our appreciation of Virgil's ideas." Braund in Martindale (1997): 221.

• Reviewed by J. Solodow, BMCR 98.1.2: G.'s thesis is that auctoritas is the central notion informing Augustan culture. The opening chapter, where G. sets forth the history, significance, and use of a. (10-20), is "excellent": G. "demonstrates convincingly that a. was central both to Augustus' presentation of himself and to his actions, a vital element in his obtaining, holding, and exercising power, the key to his rule." G. describes its relations to the realms of politics and of morals and ideals, and then its place in art and architecture, literature, and religion. When he moves outside the political sphere, however, G. is much less successful. Topics discussed are the Aeneid; Prima Porta statue; coinage; Ara Pacis; Forum of Augustus. The problem is that G. gives a. "so expansive a definition that it may be comparable to any quality."

• Contents:
  1. Augustan Poetry and the Life of Luxury
  2. Propertius and Antony
  3. Genre and Real Life in Latin Poetry
  4. Of Wines and Spirits
  5. The Pleasures of Water and Nakedness
  6. Meretrices, Matrimony and Myth
  7. Love and Death
  8. The Fourth Georgic, Virgil and Rome
  9. The Creation of Characters in the Aeneid
  10. The Influence of Drama

• Cross-reference to Reviews and Contents.

Patterson, John R. "The City of Rome. From Republic to Empire." JRS 82 (1992) 186-215.

• "[A]n attempt to review developments in the study of the city of Rome since 1980". Contains maps and plans. Sections (after an introduction): I. Politics and the city: the Forum (190); II. Aristocratic competition in the city: the Campus Martius (194); III. Aristocratic housing (200); IV. The emperor at home: the Palatine (204); V. The emperor and the city: the imperial fora (207); VI. The emperor and the people (210); VII. Conclusions.

Rawson, Elizabeth. Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic. London, 1985.

• "[F]or an overview of the influence of Hellenistic ideas in late Republican Rome". Braund in Martindale (1997): 221.

Editions

See also Commentaries.

de la Cerda, J. L. P. Vergilii Maronis priores sex libri Aeneidos argumentis explicationibus notis illustrati. Leiden. 1612. P. Vergilii Maronis posteriores sex libri Aeneidos argumentis explicationibus notis illustrati. 1617. Reprint. Cologne. 1642-7.

• "Still important". Harrison (1991): xi.

Mynors, R. A. B. P. Vergili Maronis opera. Oxford. 1969. Reprint, with corrections. 1972.

• The standard edition used today.

• "[A] great achievement in collation of MSS and the first modern critical edition." Harrison (1991): xi.

The Vergil Project.

• This multi-faceted project was created by Prof. Joseph Farrell at the University of Pennsylvania. The link above connects you to http://vergil.classics.upenn.edu/. The two entries below also belong to the Vergil Project.

• Vergil's Home Page. There's a portrait of the great poet, if you're curious; and lots of links worth getting lost in. The URL is http://vergil.classics.upenn.edu/home.html.

• An innovative approach to the text of Vergil: you can create your own personal text, contribute to a constantly-changing twentieth-century vulgate, or just read. The URL is http://vergil.classics.upenn.edu/edition.html.

• An electronic text and commentary.

Enciclopedia Virgiliana. Rome. 1984-.

Ideology

• Vergil
  Other Augustan Poets
  Augustan Politics and Ideology
  Ideology and Propaganda: Wider Perspectives

Vergil

Bowie, A. M. "The Death of Priam. Allegory and History in the Aeneid." CQ 40 (1990) 470-481.

Buchheit, Vinzenz. Virgil über die Sendung Roms. Untersuchungen zum Bellum Poenicum und zur Aeneis. Gymnasium Beiheft 3. Heidelberg. 1963.

Buchheit, Vinzenz. "Vergilische Geschichtsdeutung." GB 1 (1973).

Degrassi, A. "Virgilio e il foro di Augusto." Epigrafia 7 (1945) 88-103.

Harrison, E. L. "The Aeneid and Carthage." In Woodman and West (1984) 95-116.

Horsfall, N. M. "Numanus Remulus. Ethnography and Propaganda in Aeneid 9.598 ff." Latomus 30 (1971) 1108-16. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 305-315.

Lyne, R. O. A. M. "Vergil and the Politics of War." CQ 33 (1983) 188-203. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 316-338.

Nisbet, R. G. M. "Aeneas Imperator. Roman Generalship in an Epic Context." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 18 (1978-80) 50-61. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 378-389.

Norden, Eduard. "Ein Panegyricus auf Augustus in Vergils Aeneis." RhM 54 (1899) 466-482. Reprint. Kleine Schriften, 422-436. Berlin. 1966.

Patterson, Annabel M. Pastoral and Ideology. Vergil to Valéry. Berkeley. 1987.

Perkell, Christine. "The Lament of Juturna. Pathos and Interpretation in the Aeneid." TAPA 127 (1997) 257-286.

• Addresses issues of ideology.

Stahl, Hans-Peter. Virgil's Aeneid. Augustan Epic and Political Context. Duckworth.

Stahl, Hans-Peter. "The Death of Turnus. Augustan Vergil and the Political Rival." In Raaflaub andToher (1990) 174-211.

• Quotation: "[A] just cause; executor of a divine mission; administrator of the nation's interests; facing irresponsible, godless, and criminal factionalism--these are features shared by the founder of the Julian race (as depicted by Vergil) and by his descendant (as his case is presented by Augustus himself)." (175) "Methodologically speaking, the paper presented here concentrates on and, if possible, limits itself to perspectives that can be demonstrated to flow from the epic's text itself. This, of course, does not mean that historical references to the poet's own time can be dismissed." (177)

• Intelligent, up-to-date, subtle.

Williams, R. D. "The Purpose of the Aeneid." Antichthon 1 (1967) 29-41. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 21-36.

Wiseman, T. P. "Cybele, Virgil and Augustus." In Woodman and West (1984) 117-128.

Zetzel, James E. G. "Natural Law and Poetic Justice. A Carneadean Debate in Cicero and Virgil." CPh 91 (1996) 297-319.

Other Augustan Poets

Ahl, Frederick. "The Rider and the Horse. Politics and Power in Roman Poetry from Horace to Statius." ANRW 2.32.1 (1984) 40-110.

Barchiesi, Alessandro. Il poeta e il principe. Ovidio e il discorso augusteo. Rome. 1994. The Poet and the Prince. Ovid and Augustan Discourse. Berkeley. 1997.

• Italian edition reviewed in TLS April 15, 1994. English translation, by M. Fox, TLS January 2, 1998: "[T]he Fasti has become a test case for understanding the relationship of politics to literature, of imperial ideology to poetry. ...[The above] is a bold intervention in this complex area. B. makes Augustus into the archetypal ruler, a cipher for the State, a figure known to every age as the embodiment of external authority. Ovid becomes the marginalized artist, and the text of the Fasti is their battleground. ...[A]n elegant exegesis that locates the poem fully within its cultural, literary and historical setting." Also reviewed by Galinsky, BMCR 98.1.26.

Feeney, Denis. "Si licet et fas est. Ovid's Fasti and the Problem of Free Speech Under the Principate." In Powell (1992) 1-25.

Fowler, Don P. "Horace and the Aesthetics of Politics." In Harrison, S. J., ed. Homage to Horace. A Bimilleniary Celebration, 248-266. Oxford. 1995.

• Two quotations: "My main point is that the inheritance of Epicurean and Stoic moral philosophy on which Horace draws throughout his work, particularly when conjoined with Callimachean ethics, makes it impossible to produce a successful panegyric." (264) "The pieces [of the issue F. has been discussing] can be arranged very differently from the pattern I first constructed. Rather than doing a Wilkinson and taking the ethicized poetics as central, we could with Fraenkel give pride of place to the politics, and see the respect for greatness there as exposing the tensions within the poetics, rather than the other way around." (266, in conclusion.)

Hinds, Stephen. "Arma in Ovid's Fasti Part 2. Genre, Romulean Rome and Augustan Ideology." Arethusa 25 (1992) 113-153.

La Penna, Antonio. Orazio e l'ideologia del principato. Torino. 1963.

• Chapters:
  La lirica civile e l'ideologia del principato. (13)
  Poesia civile e vita galante nell'eta augustea. (125)
  Architettura e motivi del quarto libro delle Odi. (136)
  Orazio, Augusto e la questione del teatro latino. (148)
  Il significato culturale e sociale del classicismo latino. (163)

Lyne, R. O. A. M. Horace. Behind the Public Poetry. New Haven. 1995.

• Reviewed by R. Tarrant, BMCR 96.9.19.

Phillips, C. R. "Rethinking Augustan Poetry." Latomus 42 (1983) 780-817.

• Promises more than it delivers. Short introductory section argues against "the traditional antitheses" (Augustan and anti-Augustan). But the focus turns out to be Ovid (whom P. says current scholarship regards as the only anti-Augustan, while "all extant authors except Ovid" are regarded as Augustan). This is far from being a consensus viewpoint, but P. takes it further, offering "tentative new guidelines drawn from the social sciences", and suggests "that Ovid's problem lay in his promulgation of a religious world-view manifestly antithetical to that both encouraged by the ruling elite and expressed in other authors."

Putnam, M. C. J. "Horace Carm. 2.9. Augustus and the Ambiguities of Encomium." In Raaflaub and Toher (1990) 212-238.

Santirocco, Matthew S. "Horace and Augustan Ideology." Arethusa 28 (1995) 225-243.

• Valuable on ideology. The word was invented in 1796 during the French Enlightenment; but it is notoriously difficult to pin down conceptually. Problems with the search for oppositional ideology in Augustan literature: individual interpretations are often flawed; the approach is "necessarily reductionist" since it describes "the poets' representation of Augustus and of themselves in relation to him in terms of simple pro and con positions"; the approach raises all sorts of unanswerable questions ("epistemological, psychological, and sociological") concerning truth and sincerity, for example: but "there lurks beneath [these questions] the unspoken and untested assumption that truth, sincerity, and authenticity must reside with the opposition"; finally, there's the problem that "many critics seem to view ideology as propaganda promulgated from on high." Santirocco's view (227): "[B]oth the old and new views share the same preconception, that literature reflects a pre-existing ideology, either by supporting or opposing it. And yet ... a case can be made for the poets as active participants in the creation of ideology."

• The cultural and political context of the Fasti.

¶
• Chapters:
  I. Contemporary analyses of decline
  II. Ovid. The poet and politics
  III. The dominance of Greek culture
  IV. Authoritarianism and irrationality
  V. Thought and expression
  VI. Literature and society
  ¶ Quotation: "In fact, there was nothing in the time of Augustus corresponding to concepts like 'Augustanism', except in so far as such concepts meant 'what Augustus wanted'--and the evidence for that is plain to read in the Res Gestae. There was no 'Augustan orthodoxy' in the sense required nor any organized 'Augustan mystique'." (93)

• Contents:
  1. Horace's Epodes and History, 1-18. R. G. M. Nisbet.
  2. Horace and Maecenas: The Propaganda Value of Sermones I, 19-58. I. M. Le M. Du Quesnay.
  3. The Lover and the Statesman: A Study in Apiculture (Virgil, Georgics 4.281-558), 59-82. Yvan Nadeau.
  4. Horace's First Roman Ode, 83-94. Tony Woodman.
  5. The Aeneid and Carthage, 95-116. E. L. Harrison.
  6. Cybele, Virgil and Augustus, 117-128. T. P. Wiseman.
  7. Propertius and the Battle of Actium (4.6), 129-168. Francis Cairns.
  8. Fabula Proposito Nulla Tegenda Meo: Ovid's Fasti and Augustan Politics, 169-188. J. C. McKeown.
  Epilogue, 189-195.

Béranger, J. Principatus. Geneva. 1973.

Béranger, J. Recherches sur l'aspect idéologique du principat. Basel. 1953.

Galinsky, Karl. "Leadership, Values, and the Question of Ideology. The Reign of Augustus." In id. Classical and Modern Interactions. Postmodern Architecture, Multiculturalism, Decline, and Other Issues, 93-115. Austin. 1992.

• G. tries to address nuances of Augustanism, not in literature and art, but "for the interrelated concepts of leadership, values, and ideology" (95). Subheadings: Some Views of Augustus; Leadership: The Moral Dimension; "Ideology" vs. Pragmatism with an Ethos; Tradition and Innovation; The Moral Culture; Architecture and Art; Conclusion; Short Bibliography.

• Raises interesting issues but asserts rather than argues, and treats much diverse material very briefly. Headings are: "Modern" and "Historical" Interpretation; Some Points of Convergence and Divergence; Aeneas and Modern Concepts of Masculinity; Social Responsibility: Vergil, Aeneas, and Vaclav Havel; Distrust of Rhetoric in the Aeneid and Today; Internal Heroism and Strong Emotions.

Gurval, Robert Alan. Actium and Augustus. The Politics and Emotions of Civil War. Ann Arbor. 1995.

• "[G.'s] thesis is a provocative one. While not in the least denying the powerful influence of the battle, he casts considerable doubt on the notion that from the outset Augustus deliberately sought to promote Actium as part of an imperial ideology (an ideology, that is, devised by the emperor himself) and that the attention paid to the battle by Augustan poets constitutes a reaction against or collusion in such an ideology." Gowing, AJPh 118 (1997) 638-640. Also reviewed by Clauss, BMCR 96.9.9.

  Chapters:
  1. Celebration in Rome and the Monuments of Victory
  2. Octavian, Apollo, and the Temple on the Palatine
  3. Horace and Actium
  4. Propertius and the Memorials of Actium
  5. The Battle of Actium on the Shield of Aeneas
  6. Alexandrian Poetics and Roman Politics: Propertius 4.6
  Epilogue: Actium Renascens

Kennedy, Duncan. "'Augustan' and 'Anti-Augustan'. Reflections on Terms of Reference." In Powell (1992) 26-58.

• "[D]econstruction of the distinction between Augustan and anti-Augustan". Habinek, CPh 92 (1997) 387-389, in a review of Fantham (1996). K. discusses, in rather uncomfortably brief terms, Horace's Satires, Livy, and Ovid's Fasti.

• On the poetic opposition to Augustus, pages 226-253.

• I. The Res Gestae and Augustus' Public Image, 1-36. Zvi Yavetz.
  II. State and Subject. The Impact of Monarchy, 37-60. Fergus Millar.
  III. The Historians and Augustus, 61-88. Emilio Gabba.
  IV. Augustus, Government, and the Propertied Classes, 89-128. Claude Nicolet.
  V. Senatorial Self-Representation. Developments in the Augustan Period, 129-168. Werner Eck.
  VI. Augustus and the East. The Problem of the Succession, 169-188. Glen Bowersock.
  VII. Augustus and the Poets. 'Caesar qui cogere posset', 189-218. Jasper Griffin.

• "In summary, we have seen that in the late forties BC divinities begin to appear on state coinage with the features of a living leader, and the living in turn begin to be represented imitating divinities. Significantly, Octavian appears to have avoided this assimilation and imitation in official artistic media before his victories over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium and Alexandria, a fact that has not been fully appreciated. With his great victories, however, Octavian also begins to be represented like a god. ... With the establishment of the principate in 27 BC, unambiguous imitation of divinities ceases altogether in state art." (356)

Quint, David. Epic and Empire. Politics and Generic Form from Virgil to Milton. Princeton. 1993.

• "[T]he links between the Aeneid and imperial ideology are viewed in a wider context [by the above]" Tarrant in Martindale (1997).

• "The investigation has been limited ... to two closely related types of opposition: the 'political,' which originated with senators and equestrians and surfaced mostly in the senate or in the form of (real or alleged) conspiracies, and the 'intellectual,' which was mainly expressed by orators and historians." (418) Conclusion (454): "[O]pposition to Aug. was scattered, isolated, ineffective, and, overall, minimal." See p. 436 n. 84 on poetic opposition.

Ramage, E. S. The Nature and Purpose of Augustus' Res Gestae. Historia Einzelschr. 54. Stuttgart. 1987.

• Reevaluation of purpose, date, and contents of Res Gestae.

Salmon, E. T. "The Evolution of Augustus' Principate." Historia 5 (1956) 456-478.

• Galinsky (1992): 99-100: On the "pragmatism, experimentation, and flexibility rather than doctrinaire planning" of Augustus, the "fundamental article still is [above]".

Spawforth, Antony. "Symbol of Unity? The Persian-Wars Tradition in the Roman Empire." Ch. 9 in Hornblower, Simon, ed. Greek Historiography, 233-247. Oxford. 1994.

• On the identification of the Persian War tradition in classical Greece with Rome's Parthian adversaries in Roman imperial ideology. Quotation: "The key figure here looks like Augustus himself, whose innovations provided models for his successors. ... Among Roman admirers of Greek culture this equation [of Parthians and Persians] was highly flattering to Rome, since it absorbed her stand against Parthia into a universal myth-historical tradition of struggle against barbarism stretching back to the war between Gods and Giants (a theme already exploited in the Augustan presentation of Actium)." (240)

• Reviewed by A. Momigliano, JRS 30 (1940) 77. See also H. Galsterer, "A Man, a Book, and a Method. Sir Ronald Syme's Roman Revolution after Fifty Years." In Raaflaub and Toher (1990) 1-20.

Wallace-Hadrill, A. "Image and Authority in the Coinage of Augustus." JRS 76 (1986) 66-87.

Wallace-Hadrill, A. "The Emperor and His Virtues." Historia 30 (1981) 298-323.

Wallace-Hadrill, A. "The Golden Age and Sin in Augustan Ideology." P&P 95 (1982) 19-36.

Weinstock, S. Divus Julius. Oxford. 1971.

Wlosok, A., ed. Römischer Kaiserkult. Wege der Forschung 372. Darmstadt. 1978.

Zanker, Paul. Augustus und die Macht der Bilder. Munich. 1987. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Translated by A. Shapiro. Ann Arbor. 1988.

Ideology and Propaganda: Wider Perspectives

Arendt, H. The Origins of Totalitarianism. 2d ed. London. 1961.

Eagleton, Terry. Ideology. An Introduction. London. 1991.

• E. catalogs no fewer than 16 current definitions of ideology on pp. 1-21; see bibliography p. 225 n. 11. [Source: Santirocco (1995).]

Hornblower, Simon and Spawforth, Antony. Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3d ed. Oxford. 1996. s.v. "Propaganda".

Minogue, K. Alien Powers. The Pure Theory of Ideology. New York. 1985.

Thompson, J. B. Studies in the Theory of Ideology. Oxford. 1984.

Wiener, P. P., ed. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New York. 1973. Vol. II. 552-559 s.v. "Ideology".

Individual Books and Passages

Book I:

Clay, D. "The archaeology of the temple to Juno in Carthage." CPh 83 (1988) 195-205.

Hardie, Philip R. "Aeneas and the Omen of the Swans." CPh 82 (1987) 145-150.

Putnam, Michael C. J. "Dido's murals and Virgilian ekphrasis." HSCP. Forthcoming.

Williams, R. D. "The Pictures on Dido's Temple (Aeneid 1.450-93)." CQ 10 (1960) 145-151. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 37-45.

Book II:

Austin, R. G. "Virgil Aeneid 2.567-88." CQ 55 (1961) 185-198.

Bowie, A. M. "The Death of Priam. Allegory and History in the Aeneid." CQ 40 (1990) 470-481.

De Witt, N. W. "The Second Aeneid as a Drama." CJ 20 (1925) 479-485.

Goold, G. P. "Servius and the Helen Episode." HSCP 74 (1970) 101-168. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 60-126.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Knox, B. M. W. "The Serpent and the Flame. The Images of the Second Book of the Aeneid." AJPh 71 (1950) 379-400. Reprint. In Commager (1966) 124-142.

• A "copy-book example" of New Criticism. Martindale (1997): 15.

Narducci, E. "Il tronco di Pompeo." Maia 25 (1979) 317-325.

Book III:

Lloyd, Robert B. "Aeneid III. A New Approach." AJPh 78 (1957) 133-151.

Lloyd, Robert B. "Aeneid III and the Aeneas Legend." AJPh 78 (1957) 382-400.

Lloyd, Robert B. "On Aeneid III, 270-280." AJPh 75 (1954) 288-299.

Book IV:

On Dido, see Quinn (1963), Horsfall (1973-4), Collard (1975), Rudd (1976), Muecke (1983), Moles (1984), O'Hara (1993). Chapters in the major works on Vergil are also devoted to Dido: see Ch. 3 in Heinze (1928), Ch. 2 in Pöschl (1977), Ch. 4 in Clausen (1987), Chs. 2 and 6 in Cairns (1989).

Commager, Steele. "Fateful Words. Some Conversations in Aeneid 4." Arethusa 14 (1981) 101-114.

Grimm, R. E. "Point of View in Virgil's Fourth Aeneid." CW 63 (1969) 81-85.

Book VI:

Brooks, R. A. "Discolor Aura. Reflections on the Golden Bough." AJPh 74 (1953) 260-280. Reprint. In Commager (1966) 142-163.

Edgeworth, R. J. "The Ivory Gate and the Threshold of Apollo." Classica et Mediaevalia 37 (1986) 145-160.

Feeney, D. C. "History and Revelation in Vergil's Underworld." PCPS 32 (1986) 1-24.

Fraenkel, Eduard. "Zum Text von Aeneis 6.852." MH 19 (1962) 133-134.

MacKay, L. A. "Three Levels of Meaning in Aeneid VI." TAPA 86 (1955) 180-189.

Reed, Nicholas. "The Gates of Sleep in Aeneid 6." CQ 23 (1973) 311-315.

Segal, Charles P. "Aeternum per saecula nomen. The Golden Bough and the Tragedy of History." Part 1. Arion 4 (1965) 617-657. Part 2. Arion 5 (1966) 34-72.

Solmsen, Friedrich. "The World of the Dead in Book 6 of the Aeneid." CPh 67 (1972) 31-41. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 208-223.

Tarrant, Richard J. "Aeneas and the Gates of Sleep." CPh 77 (1982) 51-55.

West, D. A. "The Bough and the Gate." 17th Jackson Knight Memorial Lecture (Exeter University Publications, 1987). Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 224-238.

Williams, R. D. "The Sixth Book of the Aeneid." G&R 11 (1964) 48-63. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 191-207.

Zetzel, J. E. G. "Romane Memento: Justice and Judgement in Aeneid 6." TAPA 119 (1989) 263-284.

Book VII:

Fraenkel, Eduard. "Some Aspects of the Structure of Aeneid 7." JRS 35 (1945) 1-14. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 253-276.

Reckford, K. J. "Latent Tragedy in Aeneid VII 1-285." AJP 82 (1961) 252-269.

Warde Fowler, W. Virgil's "Gathering of the Clans." Being Observations on Aeneid VII.601-817. 2d ed. Oxford. 1918. Reprint. New York. 1978.

• Quotation: "It is interesting to compare this pageant with similar episodes in the Iliad, in the eighth book of the Punica of Silius Italicus, who wrote about a century after Vergil, and Milton's Paradise Lost, book i." (27)

Book VIII:

Bacon, J. R. "Aeneas in Wonderland." CR 53 (1939) 97-104.

Becker, C. "Der Schild des Aeneas." WS 77 (1964) 111-127.

Binder, G. Aeneas und Augustus. Interpretationen zum 8. Buch der Aeneis. Meisenheim am Glan. 1971.

• Typological links between Augustus and Aeneas. "[E]xhaustive purely historical commentary on certain sections of book VIII." Gransden (1976): vii.

George, Edward Vincent. Aeneid VIII and the Aitia of Callimachus. Leiden. 1974.

Gurval, Robert Alan, "The Battle of Actium on the Shield of Aeneas." Chapter 5 in Gurval (1995).

Hardie, Philip R. "The Shield of Aeneas. The Cosmic Icon." In Hardie (1986).

Warde Fowler, W. Aeneas at the Site of Rome. Being Observations on Aeneid VIII. 1918. Reprint. New York. 1978.

West, D. A. "Cernere erat: The Shield of Aeneas." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 15 (1975-6) 1-7. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 295-304.

Book IX:

Dickie, M. "The Speech of Numanus Remulus (Aeneid 9.598-620)." PLLS 5 (1985) 165-221.

Duckworth, G. E. "The Significance of Nisus and Euryalus for Aeneid IX-XII." AJPh 88 (1967) 129-150.

• "D.'s important article shows that the links are mainly with the last four books of the poem, and that the story of Nisus and Euryalus sets the tone for the whole of the narrative of the war in Italy." Hardie (1994): 25.

Fitzgerald, G. J. "Nisus and Euryalus. A Paradigm of Futile Behaviour and the Tragedy of Youth." In Martyn, J. R. C., ed. Cicero and Virgil. Studies in Honour of Harold Hunt, 114-137. Amsterdam. 1972.

Horsfall, N. M. "Numanus Remulus. Ethnography and Propaganda in Aeneid 9.598 ff." Latomus 30 (1971) 1108-16. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 305-315.

La Penna, Antonio. "Lettura del nono libro dell'Eneide." In Gigante, M., ed. Lecturae Vergilianae III. Naples. 1983.

Lennox, Peter G. "Virgil's Night-Episode Re-examined (Aeneid ix.176-449)." Hermes 105 (1977) 331-342.

Pavlock, B. "Epic and Tragedy in Vergil's Nisus and Euryalus Episode." TAPA 115 (1985) 207-224.

Saylor, C. "Group vs. Individual in Vergil Aeneid IX." Latomus 49 (1990) 88-94.

Sordie, M. Athenaeum 42 (1964) 80-100.

• "For an attempt to construct typological parallels between the events of Aeneid IX and early fourth-century Roman history (Turnus as Gaul, Aeneas as Camillus, etc.) see [above]." Hardie (1994): 12.

See also Klingner's chapter on this book in Klingner (1967), 566-581.

Benario, Herbert W. "The Tenth Book of the Aeneid." TAPA 98 (1967) 23-36.

Squillante, M. B. Stud. Lat. 4 (1974) 3-15.

Book XII:

On closure, see Fowler (1989) and Hardie (1997b). Most scholarly interest in this book focuses on the anger of Aeneas and the death of Turnus. On the death of Turnus, see Chapter 4 by Horsfall (1995). On the anger of Aeneas, see, besides various studies listed below: Braund (1997a) on philosophical views of anger; the collection of essays in Braund and Gill (1997) (especially Fowler on Epicurean anger); Thornton (1976) 159-163 (on Peripatetic anger); Cairns (1989) 33-38 (on Cynic anger); Putnam (1995) 201-245.

Anderson, W. S. "Two Passages From Book 12 of the Aeneid." CSCA 4 (1971) 49-65.

Barchiesi, A. "Il lamento di Giuturna." Materiali e Discussioni 1 (1978) 99-121.

Dyson, Julia. Sic Denique Victor. An Interpretation of the End of Vergil's Aeneid. Diss. Harvard. 1993.

Edgeworth, R. J. "The Dirae of Aeneid XII." Eranos 84 (1986) 133-143.

Galinsky, Karl. "The Anger of Aeneas." AJPh 109 (1988) 321-348.

• Epicurean theory as presented in Philodemus' De ira. Aeneas' anger is "anything but inhuman." (Galinsky, in a review elsewhere.)

Little, D. A. "The Death of Turnus and the Pessimism of the Aeneid." AUMLA 33 (1970) 67-76.

Perkell, Christine. "The Lament of Juturna. Pathos and Interpretation in the Aeneid." TAPA 127 (1997) 257-286.

Putnam, Michael C. J. "Anger, Blindness, and Insight in Virgil's Aeneid." Apeiron 23 (1990) 7-40.

Stahl, Hans-Peter. "The Death of Turnus. Augustan Vergil and the Political Rival." In Raaflaub andToher (1990) 174-211.

• Cross-reference to Quotation.

Warde Fowler, W. The Death of Turnus. Being Observations on Aeneid XII. 1919.

West, David A. "The Deaths of Hector and Turnus." G&R 21 (1974) 21-31.

Major Studies

Anderson, W. S. The Art of the Aeneid. Englewood Cliffs. 1969.

Berres, Thomas. Die Entstehung der Aeneas. Hermes Einzelschr. 45. Wiesbaden. 1982.

• Reviews: Horsfall CR 37 (1987) 15-17, Harrison JRS 76 (1986).

Cairns, Francis. Virgil's Augustan Epic. Cambridge. 1989.

• Chapters:
  1. Divine and Human Kingship
  2. Kingship and the Love Affair of Aeneas and Dido
  3. Kingship and the Conflict of Aeneas and Turnus
  4. Concord and Discord
  5. Geography and Nationalism
  6. Dido and the Elegiac Tradition
  7. Lavinia and the Lyric Tradition
  8. The Aeneid as Odyssey
  9. The Games in Homer and Virgil

Coleiro, E. Temetica e struttura dell' Eneide de Virgilio. Amsterdam. 1983.

DiCesare, Mario A. The Altar and the City. A Reading of Vergil's Aeneid. New York. 1974.

Gercke, Alfred. Die Entstehung der Aeneis. Berlin. 1913.

Gotoff, H. Book-length study of the style of the Aeneid. Forthcoming.

• Source: O'Hara in Martindale (1997): 257.

Griffin, Jasper. Virgil. Past Masters Series. Oxford. 1986.

Hardie, Philip R. Virgil's Aeneid. Cosmos and Imperium. Oxford. 1986.

• Cross-reference for Contents.

¶
• Review article: Hardie, Philip R. "Vergil's epic techniques. Heinze ninety years on." CPh 90 (1995) 267-276.
  ¶ "It is Heinze who first set as a specific goal the search for the original elements in the poetry of the Aeneid. By detailed examination of the text, primarily in terms of the inherited patterns of epic structure, and the variations of the Aeneas legends available to Vergil, H. discussed the poet's particular methods of composition and such specific topics as plot construction and character development." Putnam (1965): vii-viii.
  ¶ Chapters:
  Part I.
  1. The fall of Troy
  2. The wanderings of Aeneas
  3. Dido
  4. The games
  5. Aeneas in Latium
  Part II.
  1. The creative method
  2. Invention
  3. Presentation
  4. Composition
  5. Virgil's aims

Horsfall, Nicholas M. Virgilio. L'epopea in alambicco. 1991.

• Reviewed by R. F. Thomas, Vergilius 39 (1993) 76-80.

• "[E]ngaging, insightful, idiosyncratic". O'Hara in Martindale (1997): 257.

Klingner, F. Virgil. Bucolica, Georgica, Aeneis. Zurich and Stuttgart. 1967.

La Penna, Antonio. "Il canto, il lavoro, il potere." In Virgilio. Georgiche, 5-112. Milan. 1983.

La Penna, Antonio. "Virgilio e la crisi del mondo antico." In Enzio Cetrangolo, ed. Virgilio. Tutte le Opere, ix-civ. Florence. 1966.

Myers, F. W. H. "Virgil." In Essays Classical, 106-176. 1883.

O'Hara, James J. Death and the Optimistic Prophecy in the Aeneid. Princeton. 1990.

Otis, Brooks. Virgil. A Study in Civilized Poetry. Oxford. 1964. Reprint. With introduction by W. W. Briggs.

• Chapters:
  I. The Mystery of the Aeneid
  II. From Homer to Virgil: The Obsolescence of Epic
  III. The Subjective Style
  IV. The Young Virgil
  V. The Georgics
  VI. The Odyssean Aeneid
  VII. The Iliadic Aeneid
  VIII. Conclusion

• Quotation: "In Virgil the symbolic character of poetry is revealed with a clarity previously unknown in the history of Western poetic art. ... As an interpretation of Roman history and as a portrayal of human life, it [the Aeneid] is symbolic. ... Although image and sound are the basic poetic symbols, I shall limit myself for the most part to image and shall stress the more hidden manifestations of symbolism." (1-2)

  Sections:
  Introduction: The Problem.
  Ch. 1: Basic Themes. The first sequence of scenes (1.8-296) as symbolic anticipation of the whole poem. The storm at sea and the Allecto scenes as initial symbols of the "Odyssean" and "Iliadic" halves of the Aeneid.
  Ch. 2: The Principal Figures. Aeneas. Dido. Turnus.
  Ch. 3: Artistic Principles. Symbolism of the sequence of mood. Forms of sequence of mood.

¶
• "I offer here ... interpretations of four books of the Aeneid, treating them first in terms of their own unique qualities, as entities held together by special verbal designs, and then as parts of a larger whole which is strikingly unified not only by repetition of key words and lines but by one or two symbols which take a special place in the total design." (ix)
  ¶ Chapters:
  1. Book II. Madness and Flight
  2. Book V. Game and Reality
  3. Book VIII. History's Dream
  4. Book XII. Tragic Victory

• "[L]ess impressive now than when New Criticism was new to Classical Studies". O'Hara in Martindale (1997): 257.

Sellar, W. Y. The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age. Virgil. 3d ed. Oxford. 1897.

Slavitt, David R. Virgil. Hermes Books. New Haven. 1991.

Williams, Gordon W. Figures of Thought in Roman Poetry. New Haven. 1980.

Williams, Gordon W. Tradition and Originality in Roman Poetry. Oxford. 1968.

• Contents:
  I. Some Characteristic Problems and Difficulties
  II. The Poet and the Community
  III. Form and Convention
  IV. Imagination and Interpretation: The Demand on the Reader
  V. The Blending of Greek and Roman
  VI. The Poetry of Institutions
  VII. Interest in the Individual
  VIII. Truth and Sincerity
  IX. Moralizing and Poetry
  Excursus. The Roman View of Historical Explanation
  X. Observation, Description, and Imagination
  XI. Thought and Expression: Language and Style
  Conclusion

Patronage

Armstrong, D. "Horatius eques et scriba. Satires 1.6 and 2.7." TAPA 116 (1986) 255-288.

• "For a critique of the idea that Maecenas' relation to famous poets was that of a patron to his clients [see above]." Williams (1990).

• Quotation: "Horace's friendship with Maecenas is a historical fact ... But it began as a professional friendship." (p. 24) Note 26, p. 202: "See esp. White (1974) and (1978). Saller (1982) agrees with [White] that a poet hoped for support and publicity for his work from his patron but stresses that 'the traditional rewards for poets were pecunia and honores' and that poets were different from other amici in that they offered their poems as part of the exchange. See also the valuable papers of Horsfall (1981b) and Wiseman (1982)."

• Part 1. Historical Approach:
  Phases in Political Patronage of Literature in Rome, 3-27. Gordon Williams.
  Pete nobiles amicos: Poets and Patrons in Late Republican Rome, 28-49. T. P. Wiseman.
  Positions for Poets in Early Imperial Rome, 50-66. Peter White.
  Literature and Society in the Later Roman Empire, 67-83. Barry Baldwin.
  Part 2. Literary and Artistic Approach:
  The Poetics of Patronage in the Late First Century B.C., 87-102. James E. G. Zetzel.
  Propertius 3.9. Maecenas as Eques, Dux, Fautor, 103-117. Barbara K. Gold.
  The Creation of Characters in the Aeneid, 118-134. Jasper Griffin.
  Patrons, Painters, and Patterns. The Anonymity of Romano-Campanian Painting and the Transition from the Second to the Third Style, 135-173. Eleanor Winsor Leach.

Horsfall, Nicholas M. "Poets and Patron." Publ. of the Macquarie Ancient History Assoc. 3 (1981) 1-24.

Konstan, David. "Patrons and Friends." CPh 90 (1995) 328-342.

Morgan, Gareth. "Horace's two patrons." LCM 19.9/10 (1994) 139-145.

Quinn, Kenneth. "The Poet and his Audience in the Augustan Age." ANRW 2.30.1. 1982.

Saller, R. P. Personal Patronage in the Early Empire. Cambridge. 1982.

Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew, ed. Patronage in Ancient Society. London. 1989.

White, Peter. "Amicitia and the Profession of Poetry in Early Imperial Rome." JRS 68 (1978) 74-92.

White, Peter. "The Presentation and Dedication of the Silvae and Epigrams." JRS 64 (1974) 40-61.

White, Peter. Promised Verse. Poets in the Society of Augustan Rome. Cambridge, MA. 1993.

Williams, Gordon W. "Did Maecenas Fall From Favor? Augustan Literary Patronage." In Raaflaub and Toher (1990) 258-275.

• A bold revision of earlier views. W. now rejects the idea that there was a breach between Maecenas and Augustus after 23 BC. "The new hypothesis that is required ... is this: the literary patronage exercised by M. was unique in that it was exercised for the political benefit of Augustus, and, from the very beginning, it envisaged that when the right time came, Augustus would take it over, and M. would fade into the background." (267) The difference from the previous interpretation thus has to do with our understanding of the nature of literary patronage, the motives of the poets, and the type of pressure exerted on them.

• Homer
  Epic Traditions Besides Homer
  Tragedy
  Hellenistic Poetry and Ancient Scholarship
  Other Influences

Homer

Ahl, Frederick and Roisman, Hanna M. The Odyssey Re-Formed. Ithaca. 1996.

Anderson, W. S. "Vergil's Second Iliad." TAPA 88 (1957) 17-30. Reprint. Harrison (1990) 239-252.

• "The classic discussion of the reworking of the Iliadic plot." Hardie (1994): 7 n. 11.

• Contents:
  I. La morte di Pallante. Intertestualità e trasformazione del modello epico
  II. Struttura del decimo dell'Eneide
  III. Le armi nel cielo. Diffrazione di un tema narrativo
  IV. La morte di Turno. Modello-genere e modello-esemplare

Gransden, K. W. Virgil's Iliad. An Essay in Epic Narrative. Cambridge. 1984.

• Reviewed by Calder, Vergilius 36 (1988) 134-135.

• Reviewed by J. Perret. "Du nouveau sur Homère et Virgile." REL 43 (1965).

• K. on the significance of the parallels (409): "[T]he four great units of action in Homer, the Helen-action and the Patroclus-action in the Iliad (not Book 1, the Menis), the Telemacheia and the wanderings of Odysseus in the Odyssey, must after a thorough study have seemed to [Vergil] to be not only comparable but actual parallels between the Homeric epics. Remember only the wrath of the gods or the women as cause of war. Such apparent parallelism induced him to unite the two in a single poem, the Aeneid--to put it daringly, to treat the same matter a third time."

MacKay, L. A. "Achilles as a Model for Aeneas." TAPA 88 (1957) 11-16.

Rabel, R. J. "The Composition of Aeneid IX." Latomus 40 (1981) 801-806.

Rabel, R. J. "The Iliadic Nature of Aeneid IX." Vergilius 24 (1978) 37-44.

• "On the Iliadic parallels in addition to Knauer see [the two articles above]." Hardie (1994): 7 n. 12.

¶
• Contents: I: Vergil and the Homeric Scholia, II: The Scholia and the Aeneid: Propriety, III: Ancient Views of Homeric Imagery, IV: The Landing at Carthage, V: Nisus and Euryalus, VI: The Twelfth Book of the Aeneid, VII: Summary and Conclusion (Glosses, Symbolic Interpretation, Realism: Nisus and Euryalus, Motivation, Characterization, Propriety and the Gods, The Agon).
  ¶ Quotation: "Although the predominant interest of these Greek scholars might loosely be termed 'literary propriety,' it should be reemphasized that this was an all-encompassing principle which included not merely comment on social and religious mores but, of more importance, criticism of the appropriation of characterization, motivation of action, unity, plot, and effectiveness of poetic image. Allegorical interpretations were also part of Homeric criticism, especially at Pergamum and in the Stoic schools. Of most importance, perhaps, is the fact that in the hands of these Hellenistic scholars, various Homeric figures and incidents had become exemplars of right or wrong action and certain similes and images had taken on specific meanings." (107)

Wickert, L. "Homerisches und Römisches im Kriegswesen der Aeneis." Philologus 85 (1930) 285-302, 437-462.

Epic Traditions Besides Homer

Barchiesi, M. Nevio Epico. 1962.

Boyle, A. J. Roman Epic. London and New York. 1993.

¶
• Series of fourteen essays by different scholars surveying the phenomenon of Roman epic from Livius Andronicus and Naevius down to Petrarch, Vida, and the Renaissance Latin epics. "This broadening of perspective ... is refreshing, but a number of contributions ... show little engagement with the arguments that have recently made the study of Roman epic so exciting." Kennedy G&R 41 (1994) 90.
  ¶ Contents:
  I. Introduction: The Roman Song, 1-18. A. J. Boyle.
  II. Saturnian Epic: Livius and Naevius, 19-36. Sander M. Goldberg.
  III. From Greece to Rome: Ennius' Annales, 37-58. William J. Dominik.
  IV. Neoteric Epic: Catullus 64, 59-79. David Konstan.
  V. The Canonic Text: Virgil's Aeneid, 79-107. A. J. Boyle.
  VI. Form Changed: Ovid's Metamorphoses, 108-124. William S. Anderson.
  VII. Form Empowered: Lucan's Pharsalia, 125-143. Frederick Ahl.
  VIII. Form Opposed: Elegy, Epigram, Satire, 143-161. J. P. Sullivan.
  IX. Form Remade: Statius' Thebaid, 162-191. John Henderson.
  X. Flavian Variant: Myth. Valerius' Argonautica, 192-217. Martha A. Malamud and Donald T. McGuire, Jr.
  XI. Flavian Variant: History. Silius' Punica, 218-236. Marcus Wilson.
  XII. Epic in Mind: Claudian's De Raptu Proserpinae, 237-260. Peter Connor.
  XIII. After Rome: Medieval Epic, 261-293. John O. Ward.
  XIV. After Rome: Renaissance Epic, 294-313. Philip R. Hardie.

Fraenkel, Eduard. "Vergil und die Aithiopis." Philologus 87 (1932) 242-248.

Goldberg, Sander M. Epic in Republican Rome. Oxford. 1995.

• Literary investigation of early Roman epic, with chapters on Saturnian and hexameter aesthetics, poetry and patronage, and other topics. "Excellent... [G.] sets out to consider the teleological fallacy, by studying the remains of the lost epics of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius and Cicero, and doing justice to them in their own terms."

• Vergil and the epic cycle.

Norden, Eduard. Ennius und Vergilius. Leipzig. 1915.

Pavlock, B. "Epic and Tragedy in Vergil's Nisus and Euryalus Episode." TAPA 115 (1985) 207-224.

Wigodsky, Michael. Virgil and Early Latin Poetry. Wiesbaden. 1972.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Collard, C. "Medea and Dido." Prometheus 1 (1975) 131-151.

De Witt, N. W. "The Second Aeneid as a Drama." CJ 20 (1925) 479-485.

Fenik, B. C. The Influence of Euripides on Vergil's Aeneid. Diss. Princeton. 1960.

Foster, J. "Some Devices of Drama Used in Aeneid 1-4." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 13 (1973) 28-41.

Griffin, Jasper. "The Influence of Drama." In Griffin (1985).

Hardie, Philip R. "The Aeneid and the Oresteia." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 20 (1991) 29-45.

Hardie, Philip R. "Virgil and Tragedy." In Martindale (1997) 316-326.

König, A. Die Aeneis und die griechische Tragödie. Studien zur imitatio Technik Vergils. Diss. Berlin. 1970.

La Penna, Antonio. "Mezenzio. Una tragedia della tirannia e del titanismo antico." Maia 32 (1980) 3-30.

Muecke, F. "Foreshadowing and Dramatic Irony in the Story of Dido." AJPh 104 (1983) 134-155.

Pavlock, B. "Epic and Tragedy in Vergil's Nisus and Euryalus Episode." TAPA 115 (1985) 207-224.

Quinn, Kenneth. "Virgil's Tragic Queen." In id. Latin Explorations. Critical Studies in Roman Literature. New York. 1963.

Moles, J. L. "Aristotle and Dido's hamartia." G&R 31 (1984) 48-63.

Reckford, K. J. "Latent Tragedy in Aeneid VII 1-285." AJP 82 (1961) 252-269.

Wigodsky, M. Virgil and Early Latin Poetry. Wiesbaden. 1972.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

• "[C]onvenient summary of known allusions." Hardie in Martindale (1997): 326.

Cameron, Alan. Callimachus and his Critics. Princeton. 1995.

Clausen, Wendell V. Virgil's Aeneid and the Tradition of Hellenistic Poetry. Sather Classical Lectures, 51. Berkeley. 1987.

• Chapters:
  I. A new poet's education
  II. Two similes and a wedding
  III. The wooden horse
  IV. Dido and Aeneas
  V. Arcadia reviewed
  VI. The death of Turnus.

Harrison, E. L. "Cleverness in Virgilian Imitation." CPh 65 (1970) 241-243. Reprint, with corrections. In Harrison (1990) 445-448.

Hollis, S. A. "Hellenistic Colouring in Vergil's Aeneid." HSCP 94 (1992) 269-85.

• H. tries "to illustrate some less well recognized affinities [than Apollonius] of the Aeneid with widely varying types of Hellenistic poetry." Points of detail but no central argument.

Jocelyn, H. D. "Ancient Scholarship and Virgil's Use of Republican Latin Poetry." CQ 14 (1964) 280-295 and 15 (1965) 126-144.

Maltby, R. A Lexicon of Ancient Latin Etymologies. Leeds. 1991.

Mendell, C. W. "The Influence of the Epyllion on the Aeneid." YCS 12 (1951) 216-219.

Nelis, D. The Aeneid and the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius. 1966.

O'Hara, James J. "Etymological Wordplay in Apollonius of Rhodes, Aeneid 3 and Georgics 1." Phoenix 44 (1990) 370-76.

O'Hara, James J. True Names. Vergil and the Alexandrian Tradition of Etymological Wordplay. Ann Arbor. 1996.

Paschalis, Michael. Vergil's Aeneid. Semantic Relations and Proper Names. Oxford. 1997.

Thomas, Richard F. "Callimachus Back in Rome." In Harder, M. A., Regtuit, R. F., and Wakker, G. C., eds., Callimachus. Hellenistica Groningana, Vol. I, 197-225. Groningen. 1993.

Other Influences

Bailey, Cyril. PCA 28 (1931) 21-39.

• On Vergil and Lucretius.

Grant, M. Roman Myths. London. 1971.

Hardie, Philip R. "Lucretius and the Aeneid ." Chapter 5 in Hardie (1986).

Horsfall, Nicholas M. "Aeneas the Colonist." Vergilius 35 (1989) 8-27.

• "On the Aeneid as foundation-poem". Hardie (1994): 11. Narrative sequences in Book 3 seem "to point strongly towards V.'s attentive reading of Greek colonization stories." Horsfall (1991): 203.

• The answer "to the question how V. arrived at the idea of a poem that linked integrally past, present and future: by meditation upon how far aetiological poetry could be developed as the key-stone of a great arch in time: explanations, V. realized, could (i) find a fitting place in an epic, as they in fact had in Apollonius, and (ii) could leap credibly and elegantly over the centuries." (209)

• On the Aeneas myth before Vergil.

Merrill, W. A. "Parallels and Coincidences in Virgil and Lucretius." Univ. of Cal. Publ. in Class. Philol. (1919).

Perret, J. Les origines de la légende troyenne de Rome. Paris. 1942.

Wigodsky, Michael. Virgil and Early Latin Poetry. Wiesbaden. 1972.

• Contents:
  I. Introduction
  II. Livius Andronicus
  III. Naevius
  IV. Ennius
  V. Pacuvius
  VI. Minor Epic Poets
  VII. Lucilius
  VIII. Cicero
  IX. On "New Fragments"
  X. Epilogue: Catullus and Lucretius

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Barnes, W. R. "Virgil. The Literary Impact." In Horsfall (1995) 257-292.

Baswell, Christopher. Virgil in Medieval England. Figuring the Aeneid from the Twelfth Century to Chaucer. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 24. 1995.

• Reviewed by Ralph Hexter, BMCR 96.3.11. More usefully and interestingly by Richard Thomas, BMCR 96.3.10.

Chevallier, R., ed. Présence de Virgile. Paris. 1978.

Comparetti, Domenico. Virgil in the Middle Ages. 2d ed. 1908. Translated by E. F. M. Benecke. Repr. with an introduction by Jan M. Ziolkowski. Princeton. 1997.

Cormier, Raymond. One Heart One Mind. The Rebirth of Virgil's Hero in Medieval French Romance. Romance Monographs. University of Mississippi. 1973.

Courcelle, P. Lecteurs paiens et lecteurs chrétiens de l'Eneide. Memoires de l'Académie des inscriptions et des belles-lettres, n.s. 4. 2 Vols. Rome. 1984.

Cox, Fiona. "Envoi. The Death of Virgil." In Martindale (1997) 327-336.

• On H. Broch, Der Tod des Vergil. 1945. Translated by J. S. Untermeyer. The Death of Vergil. Oxford. 1983.

Hagendahl, H. The Latin Fathers and the Classics. Göteborg. 1958.

• "On the late antique phase of V.'s influence [the above] is still useful, though for the Aeneid there is a much fuller treatment in Courcelle (1984)." Tarrant in Martindale (1997): 71.

Hardie, Philip. The Epic Successors of Virgil. A Study in the Dynamic of a Tradition. Cambridge. 1993.

Horsfall, Nicholas M. "Virgil's Impact at Rome. The Non-Literary Evidence." In Horsfall (1995) 249-256.

Jacoff, Rachel, and Schnapp, Jeffrey T., eds. The Poetry of Allusion. Virgil and Ovid in Dante's Commedia. Stanford. 1991.

Kallendorf, Craig. In Praise of Aeneas. Virgil and Epideictic Rhetoric in the Early Italian Renaissance. Hanover. 1989.

Kallendorf, Craig. Vergil. The Classical Heritage. Vol. 2. New York, 1993.

• "[R]eprints fourteen essays on various aspects of V.'s reception, and contains an extensive bibliographical survey by the editor (reprinted from Vergilius 36 (1990) 82-98)." Kennedy in Martindale (1997): 55.

• "[I]ncisive comments on Ovid's poetic language in relation to V.'s." Tarrant in Martindale (1997): 71.

Llewellyn, Nigel. "Virgil and the Visual Arts." In Martindale (1984).

• "[P]rimarily focuses on artists' ways of translating poetic into pictorial narratives." Liversidge in Martindale (1997): 102.

Martindale, Charles. "The Classic of All Europe." In Martindale (1997) 1-18.

Martindale, Charles. Redeeming the Text. Latin Poetry and the Hermeneutics of Reception. Cambridge. 1993.

Martindale, Charles. Virgil and His Influence. Bristol. 1984.

O'Hara, James J. "Vergil's Best Reader? Ovidian Commentary on Vergilian Etymological Wordplay." CJ 91 (1996) 255-276.

Putnam, Michael C. J. "Virgil's Tragic Future. Senecan Drama and the Aeneid." In La storia, la letteratura e l'arte a Roma da Tiberio a Domiziano: Atti del convegno, 231-291. Reprint. In Putnam (1995) 246-285.

Scarron. Le Virgile travesti. Ed. by Jean Serroy. Paris. 1988.

• A seventeenth-century parody of Vergil.

• "Building on the philosophy of Martin Buber, S. considers the allusive poetry of Ovid, and especially Ovid's reading of Virgil." Press advertisement.

Tarrant, Richard. "Aspects of Virgil's Reception in Antiquity." In Martindale (1997) 56-72.

Thomas, Richard F. Study of Vergilian reception. Forthcoming.

• "[B]roader treatment of V. reception now in preparation ... (to be published by Harvard University Press)." Tarrant in Martindale (1997): 71.

• "The one extensive treatment of Virgil in art". Liversidge in Martindale (1997): 103.

Wright, David H. The Vatican Vergil. A Masterpiece of Late Antique Art. Princeton. 1983.

Ziolkowski, Theodor. Virgil and the Moderns. Princeton. 1993.

• "[H]as immediately established itself as the point of departure for future studies of V.'s impact on the literature of the twentieth century." Kennedy in Martindale (1997): 55.

Bailey, Cyril. Religion in Vergil. 1935.

Bowra, C. M. "Aeneas and the Stoic Ideal." G&R 3 (1933-4) 8-21. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 363-377.

Boyancé, Paul. La Réligion de Virgile. Paris. 1963.

Braund, Susanna Morton. "Virgil and the Cosmos. Religious and Philosophical Ideas." In Martindale (1997) 204-221.

Braund, Susanna Morton, and Gill, Christopher, eds. The Passions in Roman Thought and Literature. Cambridge. 1997.

• Reviewed by J. Griffin, TLS January 9, 1998.

Coleman, R. "The Gods in the Aeneid." G&R 29 (1982) 143-168.

Edwards, M. "The Expression of Stoic Ideas in the Aeneid." Phoenix 14 (1960) 151-165.

Feeney, D. C. The Gods in Epic. Poets and Critics of the Classical Tradition. Oxford. 1991. Reprint. 1993.

• "F. revolutionizes the whole issue of the gods in the Aeneid. For the basics Bailey is still useful." Hardie (1994): 20 n. 30.

Hardie, Philip R. Virgil's Aeneid. Cosmos and Imperium. Oxford. 1986.

• Chapters:
  1. Poetry and cosmology in antiquity
  2. Cosmology and history in Virgil
  3. Gigantomachy in the Aeneid: I
  4. Gigantomachy in the Aeneid: II
  5. Lucretius and the Aeneid
  6. Hyperbole
  7. Universal expressions in the Aeneid
  8. The shield of Aeneas: The cosmic icon

Pötscher, W. Vergil und die göttlichen Mächte. Hildesheim. 1977.

Simon, Erika. Die Götter der Römer. Munich. 1990.

Thornton, A. The Living Universe. Gods and Men in Virgil's Aeneid. Leiden. 1976.

• "[D]eals with matters of cosmology, philosophy, and the gods." Braund in Martindale (1997): 221.

Rome and Italy: Topography & Geography, Ethnography, Antiquarianism

Alföldi, Andreas. Early Rome and the Latins. Ann Arbor. 1963.

Cairns, Francis. "Geography and Nationalism." Chapter 5 in Cairns (1989).

Carcopino, J. Virgile et les origines d'Ostie. 2d ed. Paris. 1968.

della Corte, F. La mappa dell'Eneide. Florence. 1972.

Duque, A. Montenegro. La onomástica de Virgilio y la antiguëdad preitálica. Salamanca. 1949.

Feeney, D. C. "The Aeneid as a Poem of History." Omnibus 23 (1992).

Feeney, D. C. "History and Revelation in Vergil's Underworld." PCPS 32 (1986) 1-24.

Warde Fowler, W. Aeneas at the Site of Rome. Being Observations on Aeneid VIII. 1918. Reprint. New York. 1978.

Galinsky, Karl. Aeneas, Sicily, and Rome. Princeton. 1969.

Holland, L. A. "Place Names and Heroes in the Aeneid." AJPh 56 (1935) 202-215.

Horsfall, N. M. "Numanus Remulus. Ethnography and Propaganda in Aeneid 9.598 ff." Latomus 30 (1971) 1108-16. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 305-315.

Horsfall, N. M. "Virgil and the Conquest of Chaos." Antichthon 15 (1981) 141-150. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 466-477.

• The "most useful" introduction to the antiquarian content of the Aeneid. Zetzel in Martindale (1997): 202.

Nisbet, R. G. M. "Aeneas Imperator. Roman Generalship in an Epic Context." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 18 (1978-80) 50-61. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 378-389.

O'Hara, James J. "They Might Be Giants. Inconsistency and Indeterminacy in Vergil's War in Italy." Colby Quarterly 30 (1994) 206-232.

Rehm, B. Das geographische Bild des alten Italien in Vergils Aeneis. Philologus, Suppl. 24/2. Leipzig. 1932.

• "The most thorough treatment of the details of the Italian landscape and ethnography". Zetzel in Martindale (1997): 202.

Sandbach, F. H. "Anti-Antiquarianism in the Aeneid." Proceedings of the Virgil Society 5 (1965-6) 26-38. Reprint, with corrections. In Harrison (1990) 449-465.

Saunders, C. "Sources of the Names of Trojans and Latins in Vergil's Aeneid." TAPA 71 (1940) 537-555.

Saunders, C. Vergil's Primitive Italy. New York. 1930.

Schweitzer, H. J. Vergil und Italien. Interpretationen zu den italischen Gestalten der Aeneis. Aarau. 1967.

Thomas, Richard F. Lands and Peoples in Roman Poetry. Cambridge. 1982.

Tilly, Bertha. Vergil's Latium. Oxford. 1947.

Wickert, L. "Homerisches und Römisches im Kriegswesen der Aeneis." Philologus 85 (1930) 285-302, 437-462.

Zetzel, James E. G. "Rome and Its Traditions." In Martindale (1997) 188-203.

Style, Themes, Techniques

• Characterization
  Ecphrasis
  Language and Meter
  Technique, Style, Structure
  Themes and Ideas

Characterization

Included here are both theoretical approaches that can be, or have been, applied to the Aeneid, and studies of individual characters. See also Narrative and Narratology.

Burke, P. "Drances Infensus. A Study in Vergilian Character Portrayal." TAPA 108 (1978) 15-20.

Carlsson, Gunnar. "The Hero and Fate in Virgil's Aeneid." Eranos 43 (1945) 111-135.

Collard, C. "Medea and Dido." Prometheus 1 (1975) 131-151.

Feeney, D. C. "The Taciturnity of Aeneas." CQ 33 (1983) 204-219. Reprint, with corrections. In Harrison (1990).

• I. Analysis of Dido's and Aeneas' speeches to each other. A.'s speech (4.333-61) is the longest he delivers. "What A. is telling D. here is that her words are a reckless incitement of passion, by which both of them are being made to suffer for no purpose." II. Frustration of speech in the Aeneid. "The Aeneid is rigidly undomestic. We hear no human conversation between husband and wife, father and son, mother and child. ...The gods, to whom everything is easy, are a foil." Much of A.'s speech is effective, though not reciprocal or personal (prayer, encouragement, etc.). Aeneas does not lie when he speaks: "[O]ften he speaks with great emotion, but he does not use words to win his way by overpowering one emotion with another. The lassitude which so many readers sense in A.'s speeches is in fact a restrained disavowal of the fervor which animates the language of the other characters when they seek to influence their listeners."

Galinsky, Karl. "The Anger of Aeneas." AJPh 109 (1988) 321-348.

Gotoff, H. C. "The Transformation of Mezentius." TAPA 114 (1984) 191-218.

Griffin, Jasper. "The Creation of Characters in the Aeneid." In Gold (1982) 118-134. Reprint in Griffin (1985).

Heuzé, P. L'image du corps dans l'oeuvre de Virgile. Collection de l'Ecole Francaise de Rome 36 (1985).

• "[D]eals thoroughly with the neglected role of the body and gesture in constituting Virgilian character." Laird in Martindale (1997): 293.

• Quotation: "In the Homeric poems it is unusual for one character to address another without receiving a spoken reply, and conversations in which three or four people join are common. In V., the reverse...of the 333 speeches in the A., 135 are single utterances which receive no reply in words."

Laird, Andrew. "Approaching Characterisation in Virgil." In Martindale (1997) 282-293.

Lloyd, Robert B. "The Character of Anchises in the Aeneid." TAPA 88 (1957) 44-55.

Mackie, C. J. The Characterisation of Aeneas. Edinburgh. 1988.

• Reviewed by Galinsky, Vergilius 36 (1990) 129-132. M. gives a book-by-book analysis of Aeneas' presentation in the A., both direct and indirect. A "valuable tool, along with Knauer's work, for the interpreter of the Aeneid." Praise: "The book, while not sophisticated, at least transcends ... the banal dichotomy of 'optimism' and 'pessimism' which ... is ... the poor man's ... deconstructionism." Criticism: "[E]ven while many of Mackie's observations are valuable, Vergil's characterization of Aeneas cannot be reduced to the simple formula that direct speech equals pietas, indirect presentation all else."

Moles, J. L. "Aristotle and Dido's hamartia." G&R 31 (1984) 48-63.

O'Hara, James J. "Dido as 'Interpreting Character' in Aeneid 4.56-66." Arethusa 26 (1993) 99-114.

Quinn, Kenneth. "Virgil's Tragic Queen." In id. Latin Explorations. Critical Studies in Roman Literature. New York. 1963.

Rudd, Niall. "Dido's Culpa." In id. Lines of Enquiry, 32-53. Cambridge. 1976. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 145-190.

Schenk, P. Die Gestalt des Turnus in Vergils Aeneis. Königstein. 1984.

Stahl, Hans-Peter. "Aeneas--An 'Unheroic' Hero?" Arethusa 14 (1981) 157-177.

Thome, G. Gestalt und Funktion des Mezentius bei Vergil. Frankfurt. 1979.

West, Grace Starry. "Caeneus and Dido." TAPA 110 (1980) 315-324.

Wilson, J. R. "Action and Emotion in Aeneas." G&R 16 (1969) 67-75.

Ecphrasis

Barchiesi, A. "Ecphrasis." In Martindale (1997) 271-280.

Barchiesi, A. "Rappresentazioni del dolore e interpretazione nell'Eneide." A&A 40 (1994) 109-124.

Breen, C. C. "The Shield of Turnus, the Swordbelt of Pallas, and the Wolf." Vergilius 32 (1986) 63-71.

Clay, D. "The archaeology of the temple to Juno in Carthage." CPh 83 (1988) 195-205.

Fowler, Don. "Narrate and Describe. The Problem of Ekphrasis." JRS 81 (1991).

Putnam, Michael C. J. "Dido's murals and Virgilian ekphrasis." HSCP. Forthcoming. [Source: Barchiesi, above.]

Putnam, Michael C. J. "Virgil's Danaid Ekphrasis." ICS 19 (1994) 171-189.

Thomas, Richard F. "Virgil's Ecphrastic Centerpieces." HSCP 87 (1983) 175-184.

Williams, R. D. "The Pictures on Dido's Temple (Aeneid 1.450-93)." CQ 10 (1960) 145-151. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 37-45.

Language and Meter

For references to general studies of Latin meter and syntax, see the bibliography Tools of the Trade for the Study of Roman Literature by Lowell Edmunds and Shirley Werner.

Cordier, A. Etudes sur le vocabulaire épique dans l'Eneide. Paris. 1939.

Cordier, A. L'Allitération latine. Le procédé dans l'Enéide de Virgile. Paris. 1939.

Duckworth, G. E. Vergil and Classical Hexameter Poetry. A Study in Metrical Variety. Ann Arbor. 1969.

Horsfall, Nicholas M. "Style, Language and Meter." In Horsfall (1995) 217-248.

Nussbaum, G. Virgil's Metre.

Ott, Wilhelm. Rücklaüfiger Wortindex zu Vergil. Bucolica, Georgica, Aeneis. Tübingen. 1972-85.

• Metrical analyses and reverse index.

• Reviewed by E. Kraggerud, Gnomon 57 (1985) 226-229.

• A computer-generated concordance.

Wilkinson, L. P. "The Language of Virgil and Horace." CQ 9 (1959) 181-192. Reprint. In Harrison (1990).

• Horace and Vergil did not invent a new poetic vocabulary, but rather used ordinary words in a style of their own.

Camps, W. A. "A Note on the Structure of the Aeneid." CQ 4 (1954) 214-215.

Camps, W. A. "A Second Note on the Structure of the Aeneid." CQ 9 (1959) 53-56.

Coleiro, E. Temetica e struttura dell' Eneide de Virgilio. Amsterdam. 1983.

Duckworth, G. E. "The Aeneid as Trilogy." TAPA 88 (1957) 17-30.

Duckworth, G. E. "Tripartite Structure in the Aeneid." Vergilius 7 (1961) 2-11.

Horsfall, Nicholas M. "Style, Language and Meter." In Horsfall (1995) 217-248.

Kennedy, Duncan F. "Virgilian Epic." In Martindale (1997) 145-154.

• Topics include repetition; narrative; epic as "a tradition that is always already at an end"; genre.

• "[I]ntelligent and bold, sometimes unconvincing". O'Hara in Martindale (1997): 257.

O'Hara, James J. "Virgil's Style." In Martindale (1997) 241-258.

Quinn, Kenneth. "The Tempo of Virgilian Epic." In id. Latin Explorations. Critical Studies in Roman Literature. New York. 1963.

Sparrow, J. Half-Lines and Repetitions in Virgil. Oxford. 1931.

West, D. A. "Virgilian Multiple-Correspondence Similes and Their Antecedents." Philologus 114 (1970) 262-275.

West, D. A. "Multiple-Correspondence Similes in the Aeneid." JRS 59 (1969) 40-49. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 429-444.

Williams, Gordon W. Technique and Ideas in the Aeneid. New Haven. 1983.

¶
• Part I: Figures of Thought and Structure in the Narrative
  1. The Concept of Fate
  2. The Gods in the Aeneid
  3. Retrospective Judgment Enforced
  4. Figures of Movement and Linkage
  5. Connexions with Predecessors: imitatio exemplorum
  Part II: The Point of View
  6. Indexes to Other Fields (imitatio vitae)
  7. The Poet's Voice
  8. Moral Ambiguities
  9. Ideas and the Epic Poet
  Appendix: Signs of Changes of Plan in the Aeneid
  ¶ Quotation from the preface: "Two general and related questions confront any reader of the Aeneid. These are: first, is the world of the Aeneid presented as a part of the world of normal human experience, with a poetic claim to historical reality and separated from us by no more than time and generic conventions; or is it in essence a mythical world, only remotely related to the actual world by means of metaphor and symbol? Second, what ideas are expressed in the epic and how can they be recognized as such?"
  Quotation from the introduction to Part II: "Objective framework is the technique to be analyzed here. Within the primary or ostensible field constituted by the surface of the text, there are indexes of proportionality that enable a reader to apprehend a secondary field; these indexes function as a means of understanding the relation between the two fields and even of sensing something of the constitution of the secondary field, at least in outline. Thus the poet, in talking of the primary field, is also to some degree focusing attention on the secondary field. ...When the Aeneid is viewed in this way, an answer is provided to the old question of the extent to which Aeneas is portrayed by the poet as a symbol of Augustus."
  ¶ Reviewed by R. Mayer, CR 34 (1984) 31-33.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Themes and Ideas

Coleiro, E. Temetica e struttura dell' Eneide de Virgilio. Amsterdam. 1983.

Johnson, W. R. "Aeneas and the Ironies of Pietas." CJ 60 (1965) 360-364.

Petrini, Mark. The Child and the Hero. Coming of Age in Catullus and Vergil. Ann Arbor. 1997.

• "New and great." O'Hara on Classics list.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Theory and Approaches

This section includes both theoretical works and specific studies. See also Characterization.

• Closure and Openings
  Discussions of Theory
  Harvard School
  Intertextuality
  Narrative and Narratology
  Sexuality and Gender
  Typology

Beginnings in Classical Literature. Yale Classical Studies 29 (1992).

Fowler, Don. "First Thoughts on Closure. Problems and Prospects." Materiali e Discussioni 22 (1989) 75-122.

Fowler, Don. "Second Thoughts on Closure." In Roberts, Dunn, and Fowler (1997) 3-22.

Hardie, Philip R. "Closure in Latin Epic." In Roberts, Dunn, and Fowler (1997) 139-162.

Mitchell-Boyask, Robin N. "Sine Fine. Vergil's Masterplot." AJPh 117 (1996) 259-307.

• Quotation: "I shall investigate V.'s narrative project in the light of the model proposed more completely by [P.] Brooks in Reading for the Plot [New York, 1984], whose focus on issues central to reading the Aeneid, such as the desire for the end and the function of repetition, could further our understanding of how the Aeneid works and why, in particular, its ending is so disturbing."

Roberts, Deborah H., Dunn, Francis M., and Fowler, Don, eds. Classical Closure. Reading the End in Greek and Latin Literature. Princeton. 1997.

Smith, Barbara Herrnstein. Poetic Closure. A Study of How Poems End. Chicago. 1968.

Theodorakopoulos, E. "Closure. The Book of Virgil." In Martindale (1997) 155-166.

Discussions of Theory

See also Anthologies.

Arkins, B. "New Approaches to Vergil." Latomus 45 (1986) 33-42.

Arthos, J. "Reading Virgil with Gadamer's Hermeneutics." CO 72 (1995) 117-121.

Barchiesi, A. "Rappresentazioni del dolore e interpretazione nell'Eneide." A&A 40 (1994) 109-124.

Boyle, A. J. "The Meaning of the Aeneid. A Critical Inquiry." Ramus 1 (1972) 63-90 and 113-151. Reprint. In id., The Chaonian Dove. Studies in the Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid of Vergil. Mnemosyne Suppl. 94. Leiden. 1986.

Farrell, Joseph. "Which Aeneid in Whose Nineties?" Vergilius 36 (1990) 74-80.

• F. calls for interpretations of the Aeneid that are open to modern theory, arguing that there is still too much emphasis on the dichotomy between Harvard school pessimism vs. panegyric, with no reconciliation between the two. He singles out Johnson (1976) as modifier of the Harvard school, Lyne (1987) as an (uncritical) continuation of Parry (1963), and various panegyric viewpoints (Cairns [1989], Hardie [1986], Galinsky [1988]) as not taking heed of the pessimistic view.

Hexter, Ralph. "What Was the Trojan Horse Made Of? Interpreting Vergil's Aeneid." Yale Journal of Criticism 3 (1989-90) 109-131.

Jong, I. J. F. De, and Sullivan, J. P., eds. Modern Critical Theory and Classical Literature. Mnemosyne Suppl. 130. Leiden. 1994.

Perkell, Christine. "Ambiguity and Irony. The Last Resort?" Helios 21 (1994) 63-74.

Harvard School

The term "Harvard School" has been used to describe, not so much a defined theoretical approach, as an attitude of interpretation in which the darker aspects of the Aeneid are brought to prominence. Vergil's outlook is perceived to be fundamentally pessimistic, and sometimes (but not always) anti-Augustan (see Ideology). Parry (1963) wrote of "a public voice of triumph, and a private voice of regret." His study, along with that of Clausen (1964), were two of the defining statements of the Harvard School. Brooks (1953), though earlier, is also often associated with the pessimistic reading, as are various important works of New Criticism such as Putnam (1965). The pessimistic reading has been continued by Johnson (1976), Lyne (1987), and others. ¶ The term "Harvard School" was first used by Johnson (1976): 10-13 and 156 n. 10. On whether the pessimistic attitude should properly be considered a school or associated with Harvard, see Clausen (1995), Thomas (1990): 64 n. 1.

Brooks, R. A. "Discolor Aura. Reflections on the Golden Bough." AJPh 74 (1953) 260-280. Reprint. In Commager (1966) 142-163.

Clausen, Wendell V. "An Interpretation of the Aeneid." HSCP 68 (1964) 139-147. Reprint. In Commager (1966) 75-88.

Clausen, Wendell V. "The 'Harvard School'." In Horsfall (1995) 313-314.

Johnson, W. R. Darkness Visible. A Study of Virgil's Aeneid. Berkeley. 1976.

• "Reacting against both the 'Harvard School' and the traditional positivists, J. laid emphasis on the disturbing aspects of the divine dimension: the destructive and malevolent Juno is elevated into the central figure of the poem, and even Jupiter, so often claimed as the providential dispenser of destiny, is made to be darkly irrational." Harrison in Harrison (1990): 10.

• "I would not wish to dignify my approach with the title of 'theory.' ...I should like to stress at the beginning that my book is designed to stand or fall not by the impressive way in which I choose to phrase my approach, but by the practical exegetical value of the examples." (1) "If we hearken to this voice [=the "epic voice"], and to it alone, we find our conventional epic: 'objective', credible, univocal. And our univocal epic is unshocking in tone and substance, indeed (and more particularly) patriotic and inspiriting. ... But there are 'further voices.' ...Further voices intrude other material and opinions, and these may be disturbing, even shocking. Further voices add to, comment upon, question, and subvert the implications of the epic voice." (2) "In particular I have shown that unexpected political material is insinuated: the Aeneid probes, questions, and occasionally subverts the simple Augustanism that it may appear to project; and it does this by means of its further voices. It is now time to pick up and expound more fully this idea of voices, the epic voice and further voices..." (217).

MacKay, L. "Hero and Theme in the Aeneid." TAPA 94 (1963) 157-166.

• "Independent of these works [of the Harvard school] yet not alien to some of their central concerns, are the cool deliberations of [the above]." Johnson (1976): 157 n. 10.

Intertextuality

Although in a sense everything under the rubric Predecessors and Literary Traditions has to do with intertextuality, many of the studies included there were written before the term was invented. This section lists studies that consider intertextuality in Roman poetry and in Vergil from a more explicitly theoretical point of view.

Barchiesi, Alessandro. La traccia del modello. Effetti omerici nella narrazione virgiliana. Pisa. 1984.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Conte, G. B. The Rhetoric of Imitation. Genre and Poetic Memory in Vergil and Other Latin Poets. Translated, edited, and with a forward by Charles Segal. Ithaca. 1986.

• Review by Feeney, JRS 79 (1989) 206-7. F. mixes praise and criticism. Of the latter: "The main theoretical portion of the second Part ... I found rigid and unconvincing... . Here C. attempts to unlock the problematic heart of the A. with an apparatus of 'norm' and 'code'. The difficulty seems to be C.'s reductive construction of the Latin epic norm against which he sees Virgil reacting. One of the greatest traps for the student of allusion is the temptation to undervalue the complexity of the model (this is different from recognizing that poets often need to create a simplified model)."

Edmunds, Lowell. "Intertextuality Today." Lexis 13 (1995) 3-22.

Farrell, Joseph. "The Virgilian Intertext." In Martindale (1997) 222-238.

Farrell, Joseph. Vergil's Georgics and the Traditions of Ancient Epic. The Art of Allusion in Literary History. Oxford. 1991.

Hinds, Stephen. Allusion and Intertext. Dynamics of Appropriation in Roman Poetry. Roman Literature and its Contexts. Cambridge. 1997.

• Contents:
  1. Reflexivity: allusion and self-annotation
  2. Interpretability: beyond philological fundamentalism
  3. Diachrony: literary history and its narratives
  4. Repetition and change
  5. Tradition and self-fashioning

Lyne, R. O. A. M. "Vergil's Aeneid. Subversion by Intertextuality. Catullus 66.39-40 and Other Examples." G&R 41 (1994) 187-204.

Pasquali, G. "Arte allusiva." In Stravaganze quarte e supreme, 11-20. Venice. 1951.

Preminger, A. and Brogan, T. V. F., eds. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton, 1993. s.vv. "Allusion" and "Intertextuality".

Thomas, Richard F. "Vergil's Georgics and the Art of Reference." HSCP 90 (1986) 171-198.

• Proposes a typology of allusion for the Georgics. Refuses to use the word "allusion" because "...Virgil is not so much 'playing' with his models, but constantly intends that his reader be sent back to them...; the word 'allusion' has implications far too frivolous to suit this purpose." (172 n. 8). Types of allusion: "casual reference, single reference, self-reference, correction, apparent reference, and multiple reference or conflation (this last being the most sophisticated form of the art and often including within it a number of other categories)." (175)

Wills, Jeffrey. Repetition in Latin Poetry. Figures of Allusion. Oxford. 1997.

Worton, M., and Still, J., eds. Intertextuality. Theories and Practices. Manchester. 1990.

Narrative and Narratology

Ahl, Frederick. "Homer, Vergil, and Complex Narrative Structures in Latin Epic. An Essay." ICS 14 (1989) 1-31.

• The main points: "Epic narrative is a complex rhetorical strategy, and was recognized as such by rhetoricians in antiquity. It requires our careful attention to the identity of the inner narrator and to the circumstances in which he is speaking. We must consider first not what we think the poet may wish to suggest to us but what the inner narrator seeks to suggest to his "inner" audience." (16) "Roman epicists, like Greek tragedians, practise not only dramatic irony but its reverse, where characters know things we do not know--and never learn." (21)

• "[The chapter] 'From actors to characters' provides an important narratological 'anatomy' of character--the accounts of 'actors' 25-37, focalisation 100-14, and speech presentation 134-43, are also useful". Laird in Martindale (1997): 293.

Fowler, Don. "Deviant Focalisation in Virgil's Aeneid." PCPS 36 (1990) 42-63.

Fowler, Don. "Virgilian Narrative: Story-Telling." In Martindale (1997) 259-270.

Genette, G. Narrative Discourse. Translated by C. Lewin. Ithaca. 1980.

Jong, I. J. F. De. Narrators and Focalizers. The Presentation of the Story in the Iliad. Amsterdam. 1987.

O'Hara, James J. "Dido as 'Interpreting Character' in Aeneid 4.56-66." Arethusa 26 (1993) 99-114.

• On "interpreting characters" see Naomi Schor, "Fiction as Interpretation / Interpretation as Fiction." In Suleiman, S. and Crosman, I., eds. The Reader in the Text. Essays on Audience and Interpretation, 165-182 (Princeton, 1980). Bartsch (ancient novel), Slater (Petronius), and Winkler (Apuleius) have all also drawn attention to the interpreting character.

Sexuality and Gender

Fowler, Don. "Vergil on Killing Virgins." In M. Whitby et al., eds., Homo Viator. Classical Essays for John Bramble, 185-198. Bristol. 1987.

Gilligan, C. In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge, MA and London. 1982.

• On the Aeneid, pages 151 and following.

McManus, Barbara. "Transgendered Moments: Revisiting Vergil's Aeneid." In Classics and Feminism. Gendering the Classics, 91-118. Twayne. 1997.

The book is reviewed in Vergilius 44 (1998): 164-168.

Oliensis, Ellen. "Sons and Lovers. Sexuality and Gender in Virgil's Poetry." In Martindale (1997) 294-311.

Perkell, Christine. "On Creusa, Dido, and the Quality of Victory in Virgil's Aeneid." Women's Studies 8 (1981) 201-223. Reprint. In Foley, Helene, ed. Reflections of Women in Antiquity, 355-377. New York. 1981.

Putnam, Michael C. J. "Possessiveness, Sexuality, and Heroism in the Aeneid." In Putnam (1995) 27-49.

Typology

Of the works cited below, most defend or develop typological or allegorical interpretations, while Griffin (1982) rejects typology and suggests instead that "there is a relationship, a foreshadowing..." (131). See also Williams (1983) for an argument against typology.

Binder, G. Aeneas und Augustus. Interpretationen zum 8. Buch der Aeneis. Meisenheim am Glan. 1971.

Drew, Douglas L. The Allegory of the Aeneid. Oxford. 1927. Reprint. New York. 1978.

• Quotations: "The object of this little book is to call attention to some of the available evidence which appears to prove the existence of a strong allegorical strain in the Aeneid, affecting the poem throughout the twelve books--a strain not entirely ignored by the ancient commentators." (v) D. argues for a "parallelism between Aeneas and Augustus, between the old times and his own times" (5) which, "though pervasive, is not to be obtrusive" but "which I hope to show was of a vastness and intricacy possibly unparalleled in any truly artistic poem". (3)

• A response to Binder (1971). See also the preface to Gransden (1976).

Sordie, M. Athenaeum 42 (1964) 80-100.

Thompson, D. "Allegory and Typology in the Aeneid." Arethusa 3 (1971).

Translation

Burrow, Colin. "Virgil in English Translation." In Martindale (1997) 21-37.

Douglas, Gavin, trans. Virgil's Aeneid Translated Into Scottish Verse, ed. by David F. C. Coldwell. 4 Vols. Edinburgh and London. 1957-64.

Dryden, John, trans. Virgil's Aeneid, ed. by Frederick M. Keener. Penguin Classics. London. 1997.

• "This Penguin English Poets edition includes maps, a substantial glossary and enough background to help readers overcome any unfamiliarity with style or substance.." Press advertisement.

• Translated, with suprising power, into Spenserian stanzas.

Fitzgerald, Robert, trans. The Aeneid. New York. 1983.

Gransden, K. W., ed. Vergil in English. Penguin Classics. London. 1996.

Hill, D. E. "What Sort of Translation of Vergil Do We Need?" In McAuslan and Walcot (1990).

McCrorie, Edward, trans. The Aeneid. Vergil. Ann Arbor. 1995.

Mandelbaum, Allen, trans. The Aeneid of Virgil. 1971.

Sowerby, R. Dryden's Aeneid. Selections with Commentary. Duckworth.

Transmission and Text

See also Editions and Commentaries.

Cormier, Raymond. "A Preliminary Checklist of Early Medieval Glossed Aeneid Manuscripts." Studi Medievali 32 (1991) 971-979.

Courtney, E. BICS 28 (1981) 13-29.

• "Some of the real difficulties which remain in the text of Vergil are pointed out by [the above]." Harrison (1991): xxxv n. 32.

Geymonat, M. "The transmission of Virgil's works in Antiquity and the Middle Ages." In Horsfall (1995) 293-312.

Goold, G. P. "Servius and the Helen Episode." HSCP 74 (1970) 101-168. Reprint. In Harrison (1990) 60-126.

• Cross-reference to Contents.

Reynolds, L. D. "Virgil." In id., ed. Texts and Transmission. A Survey of the Latin Classics, 433-436. Oxford. 1983.

Ribbeck, O. Prolegomena critica ad P. Vergili Maronis opera. Leipzig. 1866.

Sparrow, J. Half-Lines and Repetitions in Virgil. Oxford. 1931.

Timpanaro, S. Per la storia della filologia virgiliana antica. Rome. 1986.

Wright, David H. The Vatican Vergil. A Masterpiece of Late Antique Art. Princeton. 1983.

Zetzel, James E. G. Latin Textual Criticism in Antiquity. Salem. 1981.

• Reviewed by Jocelyn, Gnomon 55 (1983) 307-311. M. D. Reeve, CPh 80 (1985) 85-92.